Adventure-based mindsets helped maintain psychological well-being during COVID-19.

Objectives: Research conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic underscores the value of physical activity and nature for psychological well-being in the general population when people's mobility and activities are restricted due to government mandates. Since restrictions may thwart the psychological benefits reported from participation in adventure recreation (e.g., rock-climbing, white-water kayaking), it is important to understand the psychological well-being of people who previously benefited from adventure opportunities. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the lived experiences and psychological well-being of adventure recreation participants during COVID-19 restrictions. Design: A descriptive phenomenological approach was used. Method: Participants were fifteen men, four women, and one non-binary person who engaged in a variety of adventure recreation activities that included ski-mountaineering, free-diving, rock-climbing, white-water kayaking, back-country skiing, skydiving, SCUBA diving, BASE jumping, and mountaineering. Participants had an average of 11.7 years of experience in at least one of their preferred adventure recreation activities. Participants were invited to take part in a visual and audio-recorded semi-structured interview on Zoom. Interviews lasted on average 69.3 min. Reflexive thematic analysis was undertaken inductively. Results: Overall, participants discussed a range of nuanced impacts that COVID-19 restrictions had on their psychological well-being. Participants discussed how negative affect resulted from restricted opportunities for physical and mental challenges, emotion regulation, connections to nature and people, and excitement. However, participants also benefited from several silver linings, such as reflecting on past adventures, a reduced need to compare themselves socially, and opportunities to spend quality time with others. Participants also explained how 'adventure-based mindsets' (e.g., resilience, focusing on controllable elements, humility) were protective strategies they used to limit the ill-being impacts of COVID-19 restrictions. Conclusions: This study extends the alternative sport and exercise literature by illustrating how participation in adventure has the potential to enhance participants' resilience and their ability to maintain psychological well-being across diverse and novel contexts (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic).

Nature-Based Physical Activity and Hedonic and Eudaimonic Wellbeing: The Mediating Roles of Motivational Quality and Nature Relatedness.

The current study evaluated the degree to which nature-based physical activity (NPA) influenced two distinct types of psychological wellbeing: hedonic wellbeing and eudaimonic wellbeing. The type of motivation an individual experiences for physical activity, and the extent to which individuals have a sense of relatedness with nature, have been shown to influence the specific type of psychological wellbeing that is experienced as a result of NPA. However, the role of these two variables in the relationship between NPA and psychological wellbeing has not been examined. Thus, this study assessed the potential mediating influence of (1) motivational quality and (2) nature relatedness on the relationships between NPA and hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing, respectively. Participants (N = 262) completed an online survey assessing hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing, NPA, intrinsic motivation, autonomous extrinsic motivation, and nature relatedness. Data were analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling. Results showed that motivational quality and nature relatedness both fully mediated the relationships between NPA and hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing. Specifically, intrinsic motivation positively mediated the relationship between NPA and hedonic wellbeing. Autonomous extrinsic motivation and nature relatedness positively mediated the relationship between NPA and eudaimonic wellbeing. These findings suggest that the associations between NPA and eudaimonic wellbeing and hedonic wellbeing, respectively, are driven by different mechanisms relating to an individual's (1) underlying motivation and (2) sense of connection to nature. These findings suggest that promoting distinct types of wellbeing (hedonic vs. eudaimonic) through NPA requires distinct approaches. Emphasising enjoyment, pleasure, and positive kinaesthetic experiences within NPA may be more conducive to hedonic wellbeing, while highlighting opportunities for connecting with nature or experiencing valued outcomes of NPA may be more conducive to eudaimonic wellbeing.

Changes in Physical Activity Pre-, During and Post-lockdown COVID-19 Restrictions in New Zealand and the Explanatory Role of Daily Hassles.

Covid-19 lockdown restrictions constitute a population-wide "life-change event" disrupting normal daily routines. It was proposed that as a result of these lockdown restrictions, physical activity levels would likely decline. However, it could also be argued that lifestyle disruption may result in the formation of increased physical activity habits. Using a longitudinal design, the purpose of this study was to investigate changes in physical activity of different intensities, across individuals who differed in activity levels prior to lockdown restrictions being imposed, and across three time periods: pre-, during- and post-lockdown. This study also examined the extent to which the experience of daily hassles explained any changes in physical activity. A convenience sample (N = 759) recruited through social media, provided data from an online survey administered during weeks 2-3 of a 5-week lockdown and 231 participants provided complete data again 6 weeks post-lockdown (72% female, M age = 43 years). Participants completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form and the Daily Hassles Scale. Results showed that vigorous and moderate intensity PA were significantly lower during- and post-lockdown compared to pre-lockdown in those individuals who had been highly active pre-lockdown. In contrast, for moderately active individuals pre-lockdown, vigorous and moderate intensity PA was significantly higher during-lockdown compared to pre-lockdown, and these increased levels of vigorous PA were maintained post-lockdown. Participants experienced daily hassles due to inner concerns, time pressures, family, and financial concerns to the same extent during- and post-lockdown. Those daily hassles had a small negative (Standardized ß = -0.11; p < 0.05) predictive effect on post-lockdown PA. It appears that to understand the effect of COVID-19 restrictions on PA, the activity status of individuals pre-lockdown needs to be taken into account. The daily hassles appeared to play a role in post-lockdown PA behavior, but future research should investigate why these results occurred.

Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being During the COVID-19 Lockdown: Relationships With Motivational Quality and Nature Contexts.

The COVID-19 pandemic is a global event that has already had substantive negative impacts on psychological well-being. This study investigated the relationship between physical activity (PA) and psychological well-being during a country-wide COVID-19 lockdown in New Zealand. Motivational quality and PA context (nature-based or non-nature-based) were included as potential mediating and moderating variables within this relationship, respectively. Participants completed an online survey assessing psychological well-being, weekly PA levels, and PA during the second and third weeks of the 7 week COVID-19 lockdown period in New Zealand. Data were analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling. Results showed that PA significantly predicted psychological well-being, with no significant difference evident in psychological well-being dependent on whether PA was nature or non-nature-based. Nature-based PA was a stronger predictor of intrinsic motivation compared to non-nature-based PA, and intrinsic motivation was positively associated with psychological well-being. In contrast, non-nature-based PA was a stronger predictor of introjected regulation compared to nature-based PA, which was negatively associated with psychological well-being. Overall, these findings suggest that (1) weekly PA was associated with increased psychological well-being during the lockdown, and (2) nature-based PA may foster psychological well-being via effects on motivation. The implications for continued participation in PA will be discussed.

Examining the Relationships Among Cognitive Acceptance, Behavioral Commitment, Autonomous Extrinsic Motivation, and Physical Activity.

This study examined the relationships among cognitive acceptance, behavioral commitment, psychological need satisfaction, autonomous extrinsic motivation (EM) for physical activity (PA), and PA behavior. Participants (N = 456, M age = 40.7 years) completed online measures of these variables, and data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results indicated a direct pathway from behavioral commitment to autonomous EM, plus indirect effects via autonomy, competence, and relatedness. There was no direct pathway from cognitive acceptance to autonomous EM, but there were indirect effects via competence and autonomy satisfaction. There was a direct pathway from cognitive acceptance to self-reported PA plus indirect effects via autonomous EM. There was no direct pathway from behavioral commitment to self-reported PA, but there were indirect effects via autonomous EM. Cognitive acceptance and behavioral commitment potentially support the development of autonomous EM for PA. Future research using longitudinal and intervention-based research designs is required to determine the causal relationships among these variables.

Great Expectations: A Qualitative Analysis of the Factors That Influence Affective Forecasts for Exercise.

The extent to which people expect to feel pleasure during exercise is proposed to influence an individual's decision to be active. In order to identify the factors that shape this affective forecast for exercise, this study explored what people think about when creating their affective forecast for exercise. Thirty-one inactive participants provided an affective forecast for a moderate intensity exercise session using the global affective forecast questionnaire. Immediately after, they were asked a series of questions to verbally explain what they were thinking about in order to generate their forecast. Thematic analysis identified four themes relating to the exercise intensity, the exercise outcomes, the exercise environment, and the enjoyment of exercise that influenced affective forecast creation. Exercise practitioners should design strategies to manipulate these factors, and structure exercise environments to support a positive affective forecast and better motivate exercise participation.

The Role of Psychological Flexibility in Physical Activity Maintenance.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of the constituent processes of psychological flexibility (contact with the present moment, acceptance, cognitive defusion, self-as-context, value clarification, and committed action) in supporting physical activity (PA) maintenance. A total of 9 physically active participants were interviewed using the Scanlan collaborative interview method. Participants were asked to discuss their strategies for maintaining PA, before being asked whether the 6 psychological flexibility processes played a role in their PA behavior. Data were analyzed using a combination of deductive and inductive thematic analyses. Acceptance, cognitive defusion, value clarification, and committed action played a role in participants' experiences of maintaining PA. Contact with the present moment and self-as-context were reported to be relatively unimportant to participants' PA maintenance. Cultivating acceptance of PA-related discomfort, defusion from unhelpful thoughts, clarifying the value of PA, and encouraging commitment to PA would likely benefit individuals' efforts to maintain PA.

Antisocial and Prosocial Behavior in Sport: The Role of Motivational Climate, Basic Psychological Needs, and Moral Disengagement.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether the relationships between contextual factors and basic psychological needs were related to antisocial and prosocial behavior in sport. A two-study project employing Bayesian path analysis was conducted with competitive athletes (Study 1, n = 291; Study 2, n = 272). Coach and teammate autonomy-supportive climates had meaningful direct relations with need satisfaction and prosocial behavior. Coach and teammate controlling climates had meaningful direct relations with antisocial behavior. Need satisfaction was both directly and indirectly related with both prosocial and antisocial behavior, whereas moral disengagement was directly and indirectly related with antisocial behavior. Overall, these findings reflected substantial evidence from the literature on self-determination theory that autonomy-supportive motivational climates are important environmental influences for need satisfaction, and are important correlates of prosocial behavior in sport, whereas controlling coach and teammate climates, along with moral disengagement, were important correlates of antisocial behavior in sport.

Psychological mechanisms underlying doping attitudes in sport: motivation and moral disengagement.

We examined whether constructs outlined in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002), namely, autonomy-supportive and controlling motivational climates and autonomous and controlled motivation, were related to attitudes toward performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) in sport and drug-taking susceptibility. We also investigated moral disengagement as a potential mediator. We surveyed a sample of 224 competitive athletes (59% female; M age = 20.3 years; M = 10.2 years of experience participating in their sport), including 81 elite athletes. Using structural equation modeling analyses, our hypothesis proposing positive relationships with controlling climates, controlled motivation, and PEDs attitudes and susceptibility was largely supported, whereas our hypothesis proposing negative relationships among autonomous climate, autonomous motivation, and PEDs attitudes and susceptibility was not supported. Moral disengagement was a strong predictor of positive attitudes toward PEDs, which, in turn, was a strong predictor of PEDs susceptibility. These findings are discussed from both motivational and moral disengagement viewpoints.

Responses to sudden cold-water immersion in inexperienced swimmers following training.

BACKGROUND: When suddenly immersed in cold water, humans typically exhibit the cold shock response, although training can attenuate hyperventilation. This study extends previous findings by considering the influence of physical activity to maintain buoyancy and subsequent swimming performance. METHODS: Six inexperienced swimmers (three men and three women; mean age 22.8) received 1 wk of cold-water head-out immersions (10 x 3 min at 15 degrees C) alongside mental skills training to improve their treading water technique and to control hyperventilation upon immersion. Six inexperienced control swimmers (four men and two women; mean age 21.8) received immersions in temperate water (27 degrees C). Ventilation, brain blood flow velocity, and blood oxygenation were measured during a physiological test in which participants trod water for 150 s. In a subsequent simulated survival test, performance (swimming duration and distance) and perception of effort were recorded. All the tests were in 10 degrees C water with the head out. RESULTS: There were significant improvements in the intervention group's ability to suppress rapid increases in respiratory frequency; 62 +/- 24 breaths x min(-1) to 33 +/- 12. The drop in brain blood flow was smaller and more transient than that previously reported due to the hypertensive response associated with treading water. DISCUSSION: Inexperienced swimmers could benefit from cold-water habituation combined with mental skills training in order to improve voluntary control over the respiratory portion of the cold shock response as part of learning to tread water. This may improve survival prospects in a real-life emergency scenario such as an overturned boat.

Prosocial and antisocial behavior in sport: the role of coaching style, autonomous vs. controlled motivation, and moral disengagement.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether the relationships between contextual factors (i.e., autonomy-supportive vs. controlling coaching style) and person factors (i.e., autonomous vs. controlled motivation) outlined in self-determination theory (SDT) were related to prosocial and antisocial behaviors in sport. We also investigated moral disengagement as a mediator of these relationships. Athletes' (n = 292, M = 19.53 years) responses largely supported our SDT-derived hypotheses. Results indicated that an autonomy-supportive coaching style was associated with prosocial behavior toward teammates; this relationship was mediated by autonomous motivation. Controlled motivation was associated with antisocial behavior toward teammates and antisocial behavior toward opponents, and these two relationships were mediated by moral disengagement. The results provide support for research investigating the effect of autonomy-supportive coaching interventions on athletes' prosocial and antisocial behavior.

Temporal ordering of motivational quality and athlete burnout in elite sport.

INTRODUCTION: Using self-determination theory as the theoretical framework, we conducted a longitudinal investigation of the relationships between motivation and athlete burnout. We tested four hypotheses: H0: low self-determination (SD) does not precede burnout, and burnout does not precede low SD; H1: low SD precedes burnout; H2: burnout precedes low SD; and H3: burnout and motivation have a reciprocal relationship. METHODS: We used a two-wave design, with the follow-up assessment 4 months after baseline. Elite New Zealand athletes (n=119, mean age=24.74 yr (standard deviation=8.54 yr); 57.14% of whom were females) completed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire and the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling of cross-lagged panel models was used to test the hypotheses. RESULTS: The relationship between motivation and burnout varied depending on the type of motivation assessed. Analyses related to overall levels of self-determined motivation, amotivation, and controlled forms of extrinsic motivation provided support for H1: low SD precedes burnout. When compared with external regulation, introjected regulation seemed to be a clearer antecedent of athlete burnout. Analyses related to the self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation provided support for H2: burnout precedes low SD. The only analyses in which the null hypothesis could not be rejected were those relating to intrinsic motivation. Finally, there was little support for a reciprocal effects model. CONCLUSIONS: Low levels of self-determination may lead to increases in athlete burnout, whereas athlete burnout may precede decrements in self-determined extrinsic motivation. Particular efforts could be made to help support the basic psychological needs of athletes with controlled forms of motivation, thereby leading to an internalization of motivation and decreased risk of burnout.

Athlete burnout in elite sport: a self-determination perspective.

Using self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) as the theoretical framework, we examined potential antecedents of athlete burnout in 201 elite Canadian athletes (121 females, 80 males; mean age 22.9 years). Employing a cross-sectional design, our primary aims were to investigate the relationships between behavioural regulations and athlete burnout and to examine whether self-determined motivation mediated relationships between basic needs satisfaction and athlete burnout. Our self-determination theory-derived hypotheses were largely supported. Relationships among athlete burnout and behavioural regulations mostly varied according to their rank on the self-determination continuum, with less self-determined motives showing positive associations and more self-determined motives showing negative correlations with burnout. The basic needs of competence and autonomy, plus self-determined motivation, accounted for significant amounts of variance in athlete burnout symptoms (exhaustion, R(2) = 0.31; devaluation, R(2) = 0.49; reduced accomplishment, R(2) = 0.61; global burnout, R(2) = 0.74). Self-determined motivation fully mediated the relationships that competence and autonomy had with exhaustion. Analyses showed indirect relationships between these two needs and devaluation, through their associations with self-determined motivation. Motivation partially mediated the needs-reduced sense of accomplishment relationships, but the direct effects were more prominent than the indirect effects.

The behavioral regulation in sport questionnaire (BRSQ): instrument development and initial validity evidence.

The purpose of the four studies described in this article was to develop and test a new measure of competitive sport participants' intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation (self-determination theory; Deci & Ryan, 1985). The items for the new measure, named the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ), were constructed using interviews, expert review, and pilot testing. Analyses supported the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and factorial validity of the BRSQ scores. Nomological validity evidence was also supportive, as BRSQ subscale scores were correlated in the expected pattern with scores derived from measures of motivational consequences. When directly compared with scores derived from the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, & Blais, 1995) and a revised version of that questionnaire (SMS-6; Mallett, Kawabata, Newcombe, Otero-Forero, & Jackson, 2007), BRSQ scores demonstrated equal or superior reliability and factorial validity as well as better nomological validity.

Burnout in elite rugby: relationships with basic psychological needs fulfilment.

In this study, we examined the utility of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002) as a framework for understanding the antecedents of athlete burnout in elite New Zealand rugby union players (n=133). Perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness (i.e. basic psychological needs) were hypothesized to be negatively related to burnout scores, while players classified as "high-burnouts" were predicted to report lower needs fulfilment than players with low burnout. Canonical correlation analysis indicated that relatedness was a low to moderate predictor of burnout, but players' competence and autonomy accounted for substantial portions of variance in two athlete burnout symptoms: reduced accomplishment and sport devaluation. The proportion of variance accounted for in the exhaustion dimension of athlete burnout was not substantive. Multivariate analysis of variance supported these results, as "high-burnout" players had lower competence and autonomy scores than athletes reporting low burnout symptoms. The two groups did not report significantly different relatedness scores. Implications of these results for researchers and practitioners are discussed.

Coping skills: role of trait sport confidence and trait anxiety.

The current research assesses relationships among coping skills, trait sport confidence, and trait anxiety. Two samples (n=47 and n=77) of international competitors from surf life saving (M=23.7 yr.) and touch rugby (M=26.2 yr.) completed the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory, Trait Sport Confidence Inventory, and Sport Anxiety Scale. Analysis yielded significant correlations amongst trait anxiety, sport confidence, and coping. Specifically confidence scores were positively associated with coping with adversity scores and anxiety scores were negatively associated. These findings support the inclusion of the personality characteristics of confidence and anxiety within the coping model presented by Hardy, Jones, and Gould, Researchers should be aware that confidence and anxiety may influence the coping processes of athletes.