How we do it: endoscopic tracheal dilatation technique using a supraglottic airway device and non-occlusive balloon.

BACKGROUND: Tracheal stenosis can be difficult to manage. Dilatation can relieve acute symptoms, avoid emergency tracheostomy and may be curative, but traditional dilators risk injury and obstruction in an already critical airway. This paper describes a novel technique for conducting tracheobronchial dilatation with a non-occlusive balloon through a supraglottic airway device, performed under endoscopic guidance. TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION: A supraglottic airway device is placed whilst the patient is under total intravenous anaesthesia with mechanical ventilation. Using a multiport airway adaptor, inspection is performed by flexible endoscopy and a guidewire is placed through the stenosis. A non-occlusive balloon is advanced over the guidewire and positioned using the endoscope reinserted through the second adaptor port. Ventilation can thus be continued throughout dilatation under vision. CONCLUSION: This technique has revolutionised our approach to tracheal dilatation in our institution. It avoids tracheostomy, and can be safely and reliably performed by junior staff in the emergency setting after adequate training.

Hypoxaemia during tracheal intubation in patients with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: analysis of data from an obstetric airway management registry.

BACKGROUND: In South Africa, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are the leading cause of maternal mortality. More than 50% of anaesthesia-related maternal deaths are attributed to complications of airway management. We compared the prevalence and risk factors for hypoxaemia during induction of general anaesthesia in parturients with and without hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. We hypothesised that hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are associated with desaturation during tracheal intubation. METHODS: Data from 402 cases in a multicentre obstetric airway management registry were analysed. The prevalence of peri-induction hypoxaemia (SpO2 <90%) was compared in patients with and without hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Quantile regression of SpO2 nadir was performed to identify confounding variables associated with, and mediators of, hypoxaemia. RESULTS: In the cohort of 402 cases, hypoxaemia occurred in 19% with and 9% without hypertension (estimated risk difference, 10%; 95% CI 2% to 17%; P=0.005). Quantile regression demonstrated a lower SpO2 nadir associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy as body mass index increased. Room-air oxygen saturation, Mallampati grade, and number of intubation attempts were associated with the relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Clinically significant oxygen desaturation during airway management occurred twice as often in patients with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, compounded by increasing body mass index. Intermediary factors in the pathway from hypertension to hypoxaemia were also identified.

The organisational response of a hospital critical care service to the COVID-19 pandemic: The Groote Schuur Hospital experience.

Background: There are limited data about the coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19)-related organisational responses and the challenges of expanding a critical care service in a resource-limited setting. Objectives: To describe the ICU organisational response to the pandemic and the main outcomes of the intensive care service of a large state teaching hospital in South Africa. Methods: Data were extracted from administrative records and a prospective patient database with ethical approval. An ICU expansion plan was developed, and resource constraints identified. A triage tool was distributed to referring wards and hospitals. Intensive care was reserved for patients who required invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV). The total number of ICU beds was increased from 25 to 54 at peak periods, with additional non-COVID ICU capacity required during the second wave. The availability of nursing staff was the main factor limiting expansion. A ward-based high flow nasal oxygen (HFNO) service reduced the need for ICU admission of patients who failed conventional oxygen therapy. A team was established to intubate and transfer patients requiring ICU admission but was only available for the first wave. Results: We admitted 461 COVID-19 patients to the ICU over a 13-month period from 5 April 2020 to 5 May 2021 spanning two waves of admissions. The median age was 50 years and duration of ICU stay was 9 days. More than a third of the patients (35%; n=161) survived to hospital discharge. Conclusion: Pre-planning, leadership, teamwork, flexibility and good communication were essential elements for an effective response. A shortage of nurses was the main constraint on ICU expansion. HFNO may have reduced the requirement for ICU admission, but patients intubated after failing HFNO had a poor prognosis. Contributions of the study: We describe the organisational requirements to successfully expand critical care facilities and strategies to reduce the need for invasive mechanical ventilation in COVID-19 pneumonia. We also present the intensive care outcomes of these patients in a resource-constrained environment.

The organisational response of a hospital critical care service to the COVID-19 pandemic: The Groote Schuur Hospital experience

Background. There are limited data about the coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19)-related organisational responses and the challenges of expanding a critical care service in a resource-limited setting.Objectives. To describe the ICU organisational response to the pandemic and the main outcomes of the intensive care service of a large state teaching hospital in South Africa.Methods. Data were extracted from administrative records and a prospective patient database with ethical approval. An ICU expansion plan was developed, and resource constraints identified. A triage tool was distributed to referring wards and hospitals. Intensive care was reserved for patients who required invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV). The total number of ICU beds was increased from 25 to 54 at peak periods, with additional non-COVID ICU capacity required during the second wave. The availability of nursing staff was the main factor limiting expansion. A ward-based high flow nasal oxygen (HFNO) service reduced the need for ICU admission of patients who failed conventional oxygen therapy. A team was established to intubate and transfer patients requiring ICU admission but was only available for the first wave. Results. We admitted 461 COVID-19 patients to the ICU over a 13-month period from 5 April 2020 to 5 May 2021 spanning two waves of admissions. The median age was 50 years and duration of ICU stay was 9 days. More than a third of the patients (35%; n=161) survived to hospital discharge. Conclusions. Pre-planning, leadership, teamwork, flexibility and good communication were essential elements for an effective response. A shortage of nurses was the main constraint on ICU expansion. HFNO may have reduced the requirement for ICU admission, but patients intubated after failing HFNO had a poor prognosis.

The mechanics of setting up a COVID-19 response: Experiences of the COVID-19 epidemic from Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has challenged the provision of healthcare in ways that are unprecedented in our lifetime. Planning for the sheer numbers expected during the surge has required public hospitals to de-escalate all non-essential clinical services to focus on COVID-19. Western Cape Province was the initial epicentre of the COVID-19 epidemic in South Africa (SA), and the Cape Town metro was its hardest-hit geographical region. We describe how we constructed our COVID-19 hospital-wide clinical service at Groote Schuur Hospital, the University of Cape Town's tertiary-level teaching hospital. By describing the barriers and enablers, we hope to provide guidance rather than a blueprint for hospitals elsewhere in SA and in low-resource countries that face similar challenges now or during subsequent waves.

Clinical management of COVID-19: Experiences of the COVID-19 epidemic from Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has presented clinicians with an enormous challenge in managing a respiratory virus that is not only capable of causing severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome, but also multisystem disease. The extraordinary pace of clinical research, and particularly the surge in adaptive trials of new and repurposed treatments, have provided rapid answers to questions of whether such treatments work, and has resulted in corticosteroids taking centre stage in the management of hospitalised patients requiring oxygen support. Some treatment modalities, such as the role of anticoagulation to prevent and treat potential thromboembolic complications, remain controversial, as does the use of high-level oxygen support, outside of an intensive care unit setting. In this paper, we describe the clinical management of COVID-19 patients admitted to Groote Schuur Hospital, a major tertiary level hospital at the epicentre of South Africa's SARS-CoV-2 epidemic during its first 4 months.

Foreign body ingestion in children presenting to a tertiary paediatric centre in South Africa: A retrospective analysis focusing on battery ingestion.

BACKGROUND: Ingestion of foreign bodies remains a frequent reason for presentation to paediatric emergency departments worldwide. Among the variety of objects ingested, button batteries are particularly harmful owing to their electrochemical properties, which can cause extensive injuries if not diagnosed and treated rapidly. International trends show an increasing incidence of button battery ingestion, leading to concern that this pattern may be occurring in South Africa. Limited local data on paediatric foreign body ingestion have been published. OBJECTIVES: To assess battery ingestion rates in a tertiary paediatric hospital. We hypothesised that the incidence has increased, in keeping with international trends. Secondary objectives included describing admission rates, requirements for anaesthesia and surgery, and promoting awareness of the problems associated with battery ingestion. METHODS: We performed a retrospective, descriptive analysis of the Red Cross War Memorial Children's Hospital trauma database, including all children under 13 years of age seen between 1 January 2010 and 31 December 2015 with suspected ingestion of a foreign body. The ward admissions database was then examined to find additional cases in which children were admitted directly. After exclusion of duplicate records, cases were classified by type of foreign body, management, requirement for admission, anaesthesia and surgery. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data in comparison with previous studies published from this database. RESULTS: Patient age and gender patterns matched the literature, with a peak incidence in children under 2 years of age. Over the 6-year period, 180 patients presented with food foreign bodies, whereas 497 objects were classified as non-food. After exclusion of misdiagnosed cases, the remaining 462 objects were dominated by coins (44.2%). Batteries were the causative agent in 4.8% (22/462). Although the subtypes of batteries were not reliably recorded, button batteries accounted for at least 64% (14/22). Most children who ingested batteries presented early, but more required admission, anaesthesia and surgery than children who ingested other forms of foreign body. CONCLUSIONS: The study demonstrated that the local incidence of button battery ingestion may be increasing, although data are still limited.Admission, anaesthesia and surgery rates for batteries were higher in this cohort than for all other foreign bodies. As button batteries can mimic coins, with much more dire consequences on ingestion, our ability to expedite diagnosis and management hinges on a high index of suspicion. It is imperative to increase awareness among healthcare workers and parents.

Risk factors and interventions associated with mortality or survival in adult COVID-19 patients admitted to critical care: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Patients with confirmed COVID-19 admitted to intensive care units have a high mortality rate, which appears to be associated with increasing age, male sex, smoking history, hypertension and diabetes mellitus. Methods: A systematic review to determine risk factors and interventions associated with mortality/survival in adult patients admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU) with confirmed COVID-19/SARS-CoV-2 infection. The protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020181185).Results: The search identified 483 abstracts between 1 January and 7 April 2020, of which nine studies were included in the final review. Only one study was of low bias. Advanced age (odds ratio [OR] 11.99, 95% confidence interval [CI] 5.35­18.62) and a history of hypertension were associated with mortality (OR 4.17, 95% CI 2.90­5.99). Sex was not associated with mortality. There was insufficient data to assess the association between other comorbidities, laboratory results or critical care risk indices and mortality.The critical care interventions of mechanical ventilation (OR 6.25, 95% CI 0.75­51.93), prone positioning during ventilation (OR 2.06, 95% CI 0.20­21.72), and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) (OR 8.00, 95% CI 0.69, 92.33) were not associated with mortality. The sample size was insufficient to conclusively determine the association between these interventions and ICUmortality. The need for inotropes or vasopressors was associated with mortality (OR 6.36, 95% CI 1.89­21.36). Conclusion: The studies provided little granular data to inform risk stratification or prognostication of patients requiring intensive

Tracheoesophageal fistula following button battery ingestion in an infant : Airway management considerations.

A 13-month-old infant was admitted to hospital approximately 3 weeks after ingestion of a button battery, which was lodged in the esophagus and had caused a tracheoesophageal fistula requiring mechanical ventilation. Since the battery had partially penetrated into the tracheal lumen just above the carina and also was in direct contact with the pulmonary artery, extensive considerations regarding airway and circulatory management were required preoperatively, which are presented and discussed in this case report.

Perioperative comparison of the agreement between a portable fingertip pulse oximeter v. a conventional bedside pulse oximeter in adult patients (COMFORT trial).

BACKGROUND: Low-cost, portable fingertip pulse oximeters are widely available to health professionals and the public. They are often not tested to International Organization for Standardization standards, or only undergo accuracy studies in healthy volunteers under ideal laboratory conditions. OBJECTIVES: To pragmatically evaluate the agreement between one such device and a conventional bedside pulse oximeter in a clinical setting, in patients with varied comorbidities and skin pigmentations. METHODS: A single-centre equipment comparison study was conducted. Simultaneous measurements were obtained in 220 patients with both a Contec CMS50D Fingertip Pulse Oximeter and a Nihon Kohden Life Scope MU-631 RK conventional bedside monitor. Peripheral oxygen saturations (SpO2) and pulse rates were documented, and patients' skin tone was recorded using the Fitzpatrick scale. Data were assessed using a Bland-Altman analysis with bias, precision and limits of agreement (LOA) calculated with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). A priori acceptability for LOA was determined to be 3%, in keeping with international standards. RESULTS: The mean difference (therefore bias) between the conventional and fingertip oximeters for all data was -0.55% (95% CI -0.73 - -0.36). Upper and lower limits of agreement were 2.16% (95% CI 1.84 - 2.47) and -3.25% (95% CI -3.56 - -2.94). Regression analysis demonstrated worsening agreement with decreasing SpO2. When samples were separated into 'normal' (SpO2≥93%) and 'hypoxaemic' (SpO2 <93%) groups, the normal range displayed acceptable agreement between the two oximeters (bias -0.20% with LOA 2.20 - -2.27), while the hypoxaemic group fell outside the study's a priori limits. Heart rate measurements had a mean difference of -0.43 bpm (LOA -5.61 - 4.76). The study was not powered to detect differences among the skin tones, but demonstrated no trend for this parameter to alter the SpO2measurements. CONCLUSIONS: During normoxia, portable fingertip pulse oximeters are reliable indicators of SpO2and pulse rates in patients with various comorbidities in a pragmatic clinical context. However, they display worsening agreement with conventional pulse oximeters during hypoxaemia. Skin tones do not appear to affect measurements adversely.

Acute high-altitude illness.

Letter by Basnyat on article by Hofmeyr et al. (Hofmeyr R, Tölken G, De Decker R. Acute high-altitude illness. S Afr J Med 2017;107(7):556-561. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.2017.v107i7.12612); and response by Hofmeyr et al.