Next-Generation NASA Airborne Oceanographic Lidar System.

The complete design and flight test of the next-generation Airborne Oceanographic Lidar (AOL-3) is detailed. The application of new technology has allowed major reductions in weight, volume, and power requirements compared with the earlier AOL sensor. Subsystem designs for the new AOL sensor include new technology in fiber optics, spectrometer detector optical train, miniature photomultiplier modules, dual-laser wavelength excitation from a single small laser source, and new receiver optical configuration. The new design reduced telescope size and maintained the same principal fluorescence and water Raman bands but essentially retained a comparable measurement accuracy. A major advancement is the implementation of single-laser simultaneous excitation of two physically separate oceanic target areas: one stimulated by 532 nm and the other by 355 nm. Backscattered fluorescence and Raman signals from both targets are acquired simultaneously by use of the same telescope and spectrometer-detector system. Two digital oscilloscopes provide temporal- and depth-resolved data from each of seven spectral emission bands.

Airborne polarized lidar detection of scattering layers in the ocean.

A polarized lidar technique based on measurements of waveforms of the two orthogonal-polarized components of the backscattered light pulse is proposed to retrieve vertical profiles of the seawater scattering coefficient. The physical rationale for the polarized technique is that depolarization of backscattered light originating from a linearly polarized laser beam is caused largely by multiple small-angle scattering from particulate matter in seawater. The magnitude of the small-angle scattering is determined by the scattering coefficient. Therefore information on the vertical distribution of the scattering coefficient can be derived potentially from measurements of the time-depth dependence of depolarization in the backscattered laser pulse. The polarized technique was verified by field measurements conducted in the Middle Atlantic Bight of the western North Atlantic Ocean that were supported by in situ measurements of the beam attenuation coefficient. The airborne polarized lidar measured the time-depth dependence of the backscattered laser pulse in two orthogonal-polarized components. Vertical profiles of the scattering coefficient retrieved from the time-depth depolarization of the backscattered laser pulse were compared with measured profiles of the beam attenuation coefficient. The comparison showed that retrieved profiles of the scattering coefficient clearly reproduce the main features of the measured profiles of the beam attenuation coefficient. Underwater scattering layers were detected at depths of 20-25 m in turbid coastal waters. The improvement in dynamic range afforded by the polarized lidar technique offers a strong potential benefit for airborne lidar bathymetric applications.

Short-pulse pump-and-probe technique for airborne laser assessment of Photosystem II photochemical characteristics.

The development of a technique for laser measurement of fPhotosystem II (PS II) photochemical characteristics of phytoplankton and terrestrial vegetation from an airborne platform is described. Results of theoretical analysis and experimental study of pump-and-probe measurement of the PS II functional absorption cross-section and photochemical quantum yield are presented. The use of 10 ns probe pulses of PS II sub-saturating intensity provides a significant, up to 150-fold, increase in the fluorescence signal compared to conventional 'weak-probe' protocol. Little effect on the fluorescence yield from the probe-induced closure of PS II reaction centers is expected over the short pulse duration, and thus a relatively intense probe pulse can be used. On the other hand, a correction must be made for the probe-induced carotenoid triplet quenching and singlet-singlet annihilation. A Stern-Volmer model developed for this correction assumes a linear dependence of the quenching rate on the laser pulse fluence, which was experimentally validated. The PS II saturating pump pulse fluence (532 nm excitation) was found to be 10 and 40 mumol quanta m(-2) for phytoplankton samples and leaves of higher plants, respectively. Thirty mus was determined as the optimal delay in the pump-probe pair. Our results indicate that the short-pulse pump-and-probe measurement of PS II photochemical characteristics can be implemented from an airborne platform using existing laser and LIDAR technologies.

Airborne test of laser pump-and-probe technique for assessment of phytoplankton photochemical characteristics.

Initial results of the airborne LIDAR measurement of photochemical quantum yield, Phi(Po), and functional absorption cross-section, sigma(PS II), of Photosystem II (PS II) are reported. NASA's AOL3 LIDAR was modified to implement short-pulse pump-and-probe (SP-P&P) LIDAR measurement protocol. The prototype system is capable of measuring a pump-induced increase in probe-stimulated chlorophyll fluorescence, DeltaF/F(sat), along with the acquisition of ;conventional' LIDAR-fluorosensor products from an operational altitude of 150 m. The use of a PS II sub-saturating probe pulse increases the response signal but also results in excessive energy quenching (EEQ) affecting the DeltaF/F(sat) magnitude. The airborne data indicated up to a 3-fold EEQ-caused decline in DeltaF/F(sat), and 2-fold variability in the EEQ rate constant over a spatial scale a few hundred kilometers. Therefore, continuous monitoring of EEQ parameters must be incorporated in the operational SP-P&P protocol to provide data correction for the EEQ effect. Simultaneous airborne LIDAR measurements of Phi(Po) and sigma(PS II) with EEQ correction were shown to be feasible and optimal laser excitation parameters were determined. Strong daytime DeltaF/F(sat) decline under ambient light was found in the near-surface water layer over large aquatic areas. An example of SP-P&P LIDAR measurement of phytoplankton photochemical and fluorescent characteristics in the Chesapeake Bay mouth is presented. Prospects for future SP-P&P development and related problems are discussed.

Satellite retrieval of inherent optical properties by inversion of an oceanic radiance model: a preliminary algorithm.

A previously published radiance model inversion theory has been field tested by using airborne water-leaving radiances to retrieve the chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) and detritus absorption coefficient, the phytoplankton absorption coefficient, and the total backscattering coefficient. The radiance model inversion theory was tested for potential satellite use by comparing two of the retrieved inherent optical properties with concurrent airborne laser-derived truth data. It was found that (1) matrix inversion of water-leaving radiances is well conditioned even in the presence of instrument-induced noise, (2) retrieved CDOM and detritus and phytoplankton absorption coefficients are both in reasonable agreement with absorption coefficients derived from airborne laser-induced fluorescence spectral emissions, (3) the total backscattering retrieval magnitude and variability are consistent with expected values for the Middle Atlantic Bight, and (4) the algorithm performs reasonably well in Sargasso Sea, Gulf Stream, slope, and shelf waters but is less consistent in coastal waters.

Spectral parameters of inherent optical property models: method for satellite retrieval by matrix inversion of an oceanic radiance model.

Inherent optical property (IOP) spectral models for the phytoplankton absorption coefficient, chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) absorption coefficient, and total constituent backscattering (TCB) coefficient are linear in the reference wavelength IOP and nonlinear in the spectral parameters. For example, the CDOM absorption coefficient IOP a(CDOM)(lambda(i)) = a(CDOM)(lambda(ref))exp[-S(lambda(i)- lambda(ref))] is linear in a(CDOM)(lambda(ref)) and nonlinear in S. Upon linearization by Taylor's series expansion, it is shown that spectral model parameters, such as S, can be concurrently accommodated within the same conventional linear matrix formalism used to retrieve the reference wavelength IOP's. Iteration is used to adjust for errors caused by truncation of the Taylor's series expansion. Employing an iterative linear matrix inversion of a water-leaving radiance model, computer simulations using synthetic data suggest that (a) no instabilities or singularities are introduced by the linearization and subsequent matrix inversion procedures, (b) convergence to the correct value can be expected only if starting values for a model parameter are within certain specific ranges, (c) accurate retrievals of the CDOM slope S (or the phytoplankton Gaussian width g) are generally reached in 3-20 iterations, (d) iterative retrieval of the exponent n of the TCB wavelength ratio spectral model is not recommended because the starting values must be within approximately +/-5% of the correct value to achieve accurate convergence, and (e) concurrent retrieval of S and g (simultaneously with the phytoplankton, CDOM, and TCB coefficient IOP's) can be accomplished in a 5 x 5 iterative matrix inversion if the starting values for S and g are carefully chosen to be slightly higher than the expected final retrieved values.

Satellite retrieval of the absorption coefficient of phytoplankton phycoerythrin pigment: theory and feasibility status.

Oceanic radiance model inversion methods are used to develop a comprehensive algorithm for retrieval of the absorption coefficients of phycourobilin (PUB) pigment, type I phycoerythrobilin (PEB) pigment rich in PUB, and type II PEB deficient in PUB pigment (together with the usual "big three" inherent optical properties: the total backscattering coefficient and the absorption coefficients of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM)-detritus and phytoplankton). This fully modeled inversion algorithm is then simplified to yield a hybrid modeled-unmodeled inversion algorithm in which the phycoerythrin (PE) absorption coefficient is retrieved as unmodeled 488-nm absorption (which exceeds the modeled phytoplankton and the CDOM-detritus absorption coefficients). Each algorithm was applied to water-leaving radiances, but only hybrid modeled-unmodeled inversions yielded viable retrievals of the PE absorption coefficient. Validation of the PE absorption coefficient retrieval was achieved by relative comparison with airborne laser-induced PEB fluorescence. The modeled-unmodeled retrieval of four inherent optical properties by direct matrix inversion is rapid and well conditioned, but the accuracy is strongly limited by the accuracy of the three principal inherent optical property models across all four spectral bands. Several research areas are identified to enhance the radiance-model-based retrievals: (a) improved PEB and PUB absorption coefficient models, (b) PE spectral shifts induced by PUB chromophore substitution at chromophore binding sites, (c) specific absorption-sensitive phytoplankton absorption modeling, (d) total constituent backscattering modeling, (e) unmodeled carotinoid and phycocyanin absorption that are not now accounted for in the chlorophyll-dominated phytoplankton absorption coefficient model, and (f) iterative inversion techniques to solve for six constituents with only five radiances. Although considerable progress has been made toward the satellite recovery of PE absorption, the maturity of the retrieval is presently insufficient for routine global application. Instead it must currently be used on a regional basis where localized ship and aircraft validation can be made available. The algorithm was developed for the MODIS (Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) sensor but is applicable to any sensor having comparable band locations.

Airborne laser-induced oceanic chlorophyll fluorescence: solar-induced quenching corrections by use of concurrent downwelling irradiance measurements.

Airborne laser-induced (and water Raman-normalized) spectral fluorescence emissions from oceanic chlorophyll were obtained during variable downwelling irradiance conditions induced by diurnal variability and patchy clouds. Chlorophyll fluorescence profiles along geographically repeated inbound and outbound flight track lines, separated in time by approximately 3-6 h and subject to overlying cloud movement, were found to be identical after corrections made with concurrent downwelling irradiance measurements. The corrections were accomplished by a mathematical model containing an exponential of the ratio of the instantaneous-to-average downwelling irradiance. Concurrent laser-induced phycoerythrin fluorescence and chromophoric dissolved organic matter fluorescence were found to be invariant to downwelling irradiance and thus, along with sea-surface temperature, established the near constancy of the oceanic surface layer during the experiment and validated the need for chlorophyll fluorescence quenching corrections over wide areas of the ocean.

Spatial variability of oceanic phycoerythrin spectral types derived from airborne laser-induced fluorescence emissions.

We report spatial variability of oceanic phycoerythrin spectral types detected by means of a blue spectral shift in airborne laser-induced fluorescence emission. The blue shift of the phycoerythrobilin fluorescence is known from laboratory studies to be induced by phycourobilin chromophore substitution at phycoerythrobilin chromophore sites in some strains of phycoerythrin-containing marine cyanobacteria. The airborne 532-nm laser-induced phycoerythrin fluorescence of the upper oceanic volume showed distinct segregation of cyanobacterial chromophore types in a flight transect from coastal water to the Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic. High phycourobilin levels were restricted to the oceanic (oligotrophic) end of the flight transect, in agreement with historical ship findings. These remotely observed phycoerythrin spectral fluorescence shifts have the potential to permit rapid, wide-area studies of the spatial variability of spectrally distinct cyanobacteria, especially across interfacial regions of coastal and oceanic water masses. Airborne laser-induced phytoplankton spectral fluorescence observations also further the development of satellite algorithms for passive detection of phytoplankton pigments. Optical modifications to the NASA Airborne Oceanographic Lidar are briefly described that permitted observation of the fluorescence spectral shifts.

Oceanic radiance model development and validation: application of airborne active-passive ocean color spectral measurements.

It is shown that airborne active-passive (laser-solar) ocean color data can be used to develop and validate oceanic radiance models. The two principal inputs to the oceanic radiance model, chlorophyll pigment and incident solar irradiance, are obtained from a nadir-viewing laser-induced fluorescence spectrometer and a zenith-viewing radiometer, respectively. The computed water-leaving radiances are validated by comparison with the calibrated output of a separate nadir-viewing radiometer subsystem. In the North Atlantic Ocean, the calculated and the observed airborne radiances are found to compare very favorably for the 443-, 520-, and 550-nm wavelengths over an ∼ 170-km flight track east of St. John's, Newfoundland. The results further suggest that the semianalytical radiance model of ocean color, the airborne active (laser) fluorescence spectrometer, and the passive (solar) radiometric instrumentation are all remarkably precise.

Inherent optical properties of the ocean: retrieval of the absorption coefficient of chromophoric dissolved organic matter from airborne laser spectral fluorescence measurements.

The absorption coefficient of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) at 355 nm has been retrieved from airborne laser-induced and water Raman-normalized CDOM fluorescence. Four combined airborne and ship field experiments have demonstrated that (1) the airborne CDOM fluorescence-to--water Raman ratio is linearly related to concurrent quinine-sulfate-standardized CDOM shipboard fluorescence measurements over a wide range of water masses (coastal to blue water); (2) the vicarious calibration of the airborne fluorosensor in units traceable to a fluorescence standard can be established and then maintained over an extended time period by tungsten lamp calibration; (3) the vicariously calibrated airborne CDOM fluorescence-to-water Raman ratio can be directly applied to previously developed shipboard fluorescence-to-absorption algorithms to retrieve CDOM absorption; and (4) the retrieval is not significantly affected by long-path multiple scattering, differences in attenuation at the excitation and emission wavelengths, or measurement in the 180° backscatter configuration. Airborne CDOM absorption measurements will find immediate application to (a) forward and inverse modeling of oceanic water-leaving radiance and (b) validation of satellite-retrieved products such as CDOM absorption.

Detection of phytoplankton pigments from ocean color: improved algorithms.

Passive ocean-color data at 32 wavelengths in the visible domain and laser-induced fluorescence line heights of chlorophyll and phycoerythrin, measured simultaneously from an aircraft in the New York Bight area, are used to examine the problem of developing algorithms for pigment retrieval from ocean-color data that would be capable of distinguishing between chlorophyll and phycoerythrin. Using factor analysis, it is shown that it is indeed possible to develop such algorithms. Furthermore, the wavelengths used in the algorithms can be reduced from 32 to 6 (similar to the SeaWiFS channels) without much loss in information. These multiwavelength algorithms yield significantly higher correlation coefficients for chlorophyll compared with the conventional blue-green ratio used for retrieval of this pigment. The Coastal Zone Color Scanner wavelengths appear to be inadequate for quantitative retrieval of the phycoerythrin signal.

Asymmetrical spectral curvature algorithms: oceanic-constituents sensitivities.

The asymmetrical spectral curvature algorithm for Morel case 1 waters has been characterized by application of the semianalytical radiance model of ocean color to post-Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) sensor bands. Results of the study suggest that the [L (490)/L (443)][L (490)/L (555)] asymmetrical spectral curvature algorithm has a higher pigment-retrieval sensitivity than does the [L (490)/L (443)][L (490)/L (510)] curvature algorithm that was initially identified for pigment recovery. When this [L (490)/L (443)][L (490)/L (555)] algorithm was highlighted for study, it was found to (a) xhibit pigment-retrieval sensitivity that is intermediate to the [L (443)/L (555)] and the [L (510)/L (555)] CZCS-type radiance-ratio algorithms, (b) have less sensitivity to nonabsorbing particulate backscatter (NAB) than the [L (443)/L (555)] radiance ratio, (c) display remarkable insensitivity to the absorption of dissolved organic material (DOM), and (d) possess a NAB invariance point at an algorithm value of ∼1.8 (corresponding to a pigment concentration of ∼0.35 mg/M(3)). At this invariance point the [L (490)/L (443)][L (490)/L (555)] algorithm is insensitive to a wide concentration range of coccolith-like backscatterers in addition to being insensitive to DOM. The dual DOM and NAB insensitivity of the algorithm at a specific curvature value and chlorophyllous-pigment concentration suggests that such invariance points should be further studied for possible use in (1) the validation of other chlorophyllouspigment algorithms or model inversions and (2) the computation of other inherent optical properties.

Airborne lidar detection of subsurface oceanic scattering layers.

The airborne lidar detection and cross-sectional mapping of submerged oceanic scattering layers are reported. The field experiment was conducted in the Atlantic Ocean southeast of Assateague Island, VA. NASA's Airborne Oceanographic Lidar was operated in the bathymetric mode to acquire on-wavelength 532-nm depth-resolved backscatter signals from shelf/slope waters. Unwanted laser pulse reflection from the airwater interface was minimized by spatial filtering and off-nadir operation. The presence of thermal stratification over the shelf was verified by the deployment of airborne expendable bathythermographs. Optical beam transmission measurements acquired from a surface truthing vessel indicated the presence of a layer of turbid water near the sea floor over the inner portion of the shelf.

Radiance-ratio algorithm wavelengths for remote oceanic chlorophyll determination.

Two-band radiance-ratio in-water algorithms in the visible spectrum have been evaluated for remote oceanic chlorophyll determination. Airborne active-passive (laser-solar) data from coastal, shelf-slope, and bluewater regions were used to generate 2-D chlorophyll-fluorescence and radiance-ratio statistical correlation matrices containing all possible two-band ratio combinations from the thirty-two available contiguous 11.25-nm passive bands. The principal finding was that closely spaced radiance-ratio bands yield chlorophyll estimates which are highly correlated with laser-induced chlorophyll fluorescence within several distinct regions of the ocean color spectrum. Band combinations in the yellow (~565/575-nm), orange-red (~675/685-nm), and red (~695/705-nm) spectral regions showed considerable promise for satisfactory chlorophyll pigment estimation in near-coastal Case II waters. Based on very limited data, pigment recovery in Case I waters was best accomplished using blue-green radiance ratios in the ~490/500-nm region.

Multiplafform sampling (ship, aircraft, and satellite) of a Gulf Stream warm core ring.

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the ability to meet the need to measure distributions of physical and biological properties of the ocean over large areas synoptically and over long time periods by means of remote sensing utilizing contemporaneous buoy, ship, aircraft, and satellite (i.e., multiplatform) sampling strategies. A mapping of sea surface temperature and chlorophyll fields in a Gulf Stream warm core ring using the multiplatform approach is described. Sampling capabilities of each sensing system are discussed as background for the data collected by means of these three dissimilar methods. Commensurate space/time sample sets from each sensing system are compared, and their relative accuracies in space and time are determined. The three-dimensional composite maps derived from the data set provide a synoptic perspective unobtainable from single platforms alone.