Topical Toxicity and Repellency Profiles of 17 Essential Oil Components against Insecticide-Resistant and Susceptible Strains of Adult Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae).

The house fly is a significant pest in agriculture and human health that is increasingly difficult to manage due to multiple limitations including resistance development. To explore alternative pesticides, the topical toxicity and repellency profiles of 17 essential oil components (EOCs) were evaluated against a resistant and a susceptible strain of house fly, Musca domestica L., using topical application and Y-tube olfactometers, respectively. Six of the most toxic EOCs based on the LD50 were further investigated against a susceptible strain of house fly. Thymol, (+)-pulegone, eugenol, and carvacrol were always the top four most toxic chemicals tested against the resistant house fly strain. Little to no resistance was observed to the top six EOCs based on the comparison of the results between resistant and susceptible house fly strains. P-Cymene, citronellic acid, R-(+)-limonene, linalool, γ-terpinene, estragole, and eugenol were repellent to adult house flies at certain concentrations while (-)-carvone and thymol were attractive to adult house flies. This screening of a wide variety of individual EOCs provides a stronger foundation of information for further research. This should encourage further investigation into the topical toxicity and repellency in field studies, which will provide more insight into the performance of biopesticides for house fly management and potential commercialization.

Comparison of Trap and Equine Attraction to Mosquitoes.

Mosquitoes are pests of horses, but mosquito trap efficacy data, especially the ability of traps to protect horses, are lacking. Studies were conducted to investigate the comparative attraction between traps and horses, increase trap attraction by adding horse odors to the airstream of a trap, determine the spatial distribution of adult mosquitoes, estimate the numbers of mosquitoes feeding on horses, determine the relative attraction of horses to mosquitoes, and estimate the range of mosquitoes' attraction between two horses. When a horse and a mosquito trap were placed 3.5 m apart, there was a significant reduction in mosquitoes entering the trap. Adding horse odors to the airstream of a trap produced equivocal results because the horse providing the odors influenced the trap catches. Mosquitoes were not evenly distributed across the study site, which emphasized the importance of trap placement. Vacuuming mosquitoes from the horses in different seasons demonstrated that 324 and 359 mosquitoes per hour were feeding during the two studies. Separate analysis of data from the two horses vacuumed simultaneously revealed that one horse attracted twice as many mosquitoes as the other. This caused the results of a study to determine the attraction range of two horses moved from 3.5 to 20.4 m apart to be inconclusive.

A push-pull strategy to suppress stable fly (Diptera: Muscidae) attacks on pasture cattle via a coconut oil fatty acid repellent formulation and traps with m-cresol lures.

BACKGROUND: Stable flies [Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)] are economically important pests of cattle and other livestock. As an alternative to conventional insecticides, we tested a push-pull management strategy using a coconut oil fatty acid repellent formulation and an attractant-added stable fly trap. RESULTS: In our field trials we found that weekly applications of a push-pull strategy can reduce stable fly populations on cattle as well as a standard insecticide (permethrin). We also found that the efficacy periods of the push-pull and permethrin treatments following on-animal application were equivalent. Traps with an attractant lure used as the pull component of the push-pull strategy captured sufficient numbers of stable flies to reduce on-animal numbers by an estimated 17-21%. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first proof-of-concept field trial demonstrating the effectiveness of a push-pull strategy using a coconut oil fatty acid-based repellent formulation and traps with an attractant lure to manage stable flies on pasture cattle. Also notable is that the push-pull strategy had an efficacy period equivalent to that of a standard, conventional insecticide under field conditions. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Semi-field evaluation of a novel controlled release device using transfluthrin as spatial repellent to prevent entry of mosquitoes into military tents.

Mosquitoes can impact military operational readiness by transmission of disease-causing pathogens or through secondary effects, e.g., annoyance and bites. The focus of this research was to determine if an array of novel controlled release passive devices (CRPD) utilizing the spatial repellent, transfluthrin (TF), as the active ingredient could prevent entry of mosquitoes into military tents for up to 4 weeks. The TF-charged CRPDs were spaced along six strands of monofilament and hung across the tent entrance. Efficacy was evaluated with caged Aedes aegypti to indicate knockdown/mortality effects, and four species of free-flying mosquitoes, Ae. aegypti, Aedes taeniorhynchus, Anopheles quadrimaculatus and Culex quinquefasciatus, to indicate repellent effects. Bioassay cages containing Ae. aegypti were hung vertically at 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 â€‹m above ground level at designated locations inside of the tents. Knockdown/mortality counts were made every 15 min for the first hour, then at 2, 4 and 24 h post-exposure. Free fliers were recaptured in BG traps operated from 4 to 24 h post-exposure. Knockdown/mortality was gradual until 4 h post-exposure. This increased to near 100% by 24 h in the treated tent but was < 2% in the control tent. There was a significant reduction in the recapture rates of all free-flying species in the treated tent compared with the control tent. Results indicate that TF-charged CRPDs can significantly reduce the numbers of mosquitoes entering military tents and that the four species were affected similarly by the TF. The needs for additional research are discussed.

A Review of Alternative Controls for House Flies.

House flies are the most prevalent synanthropic pest worldwide. Although they seldom reproduce in homes, they invade buildings, cause annoyance, and carry pathogens. Urban pest management personnel are limited in their ability to locate and manage larval habitats, so most house fly management in urban settings focuses on adult fly suppression. Sanitation is probably the most critical component, eliminating odors that attract flies. Source reduction applies where larval habitats can be identified and eliminated. Exclusion involves keeping flies out of structures. Despite all efforts, flies will manage to enter the human environment, so exclusion includes air curtains, fans, screened windows, and doors. Ultraviolet light traps attract and immobilize, while window traps entice flies into devices that entrap them. Sticky tubes and ribbons rely on flies' inclination to land on vertical lines to entangle them in glue. Even low-tech fly swatters can play significant roles in eliminating individual flies. Timed-release aerosol pyrethrin dispensers can be effective against flies confined in enclosed spaces. Toxic baits have limited use in urban settings. Chemical suppression remains a critical component of fly IPM, essential in situations requiring immediate fly elimination.

Factors Affecting Numbers of House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) Captured by Ultraviolet Light Traps in a Large Retail Supermarket.

The house fly, Musca domestica L., is an international nuisance and vector of numerous pathogens that cause disease syndromes in humans and animals. In urban areas, fly exclusion is a major part of the pest management program at many commercial establishments. If flies elude the exclusion techniques, a system for fly management inside the building is the next line of defense. Permission was given to evaluate the fly management system consisting of 12 GT-180 and 6 MX-360 ultraviolet (UV) light traps inside of a large supermarket for 8 wk. GT-180 traps mounted 2 m high on walls captured significantly fewer flies than MX-360s, larger portable traps placed on the floor. Both glue boards in GT-180 traps captured similar fly numbers. In the MX-360 traps, mean fly numbers captured by the two vertically mounted glue boards combined were not significantly different from those captured by the single lower horizontal glue board. Changing from white to black glue boards significantly reduced fly numbers captured by both traps. Three of the six traps capturing the largest mean fly numbers were in the Bakery, followed by the Deli. A total of 3,626 house flies (453/week) was captured during the study. Changes in weekly fly populations inside the store were visibly obvious because fly numbers were so high. Difference in flies trapped because of trap location and height, and glue board color are further discussed.

Evaluation of the DynaTrap Flylight (DT-3009) Against House Flies and Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) Under Indoor Conditions.

Ultraviolet light traps are commonly used to manage house flies in indoor situations. Many indoor traps are longer than their 46-cm fluorescent tubes and have glue boards to capture attracted flies. Smaller traps have been sold to use in homes and small rooms, but few if any trap evaluations can be found in the literature. One trap, the DynaTrap Flylight DT-3009 (DTFL) has become quite common and a performance evaluation between it and an open-front commercial trap seemed warranted. Evaluations were conducted at the USDA-ARS-CMAVE laboratory in Gainesville, FL. The DTFL and the Gardner GT-200 open-front trap were evaluated individually and then in pairs. Traps were placed approximately 90 cm above the floor at the edge of a 2.4- × 0.76-m wide counter. Traps tested individually were centered on the long axis of the counter. For paired tests, traps were placed approximately 2.1 m apart. Fifty mixed-sex, 3- to 5-d-old house or stable flies were released and counts of captured flies were made after 1, 4, and 24 h. In individual tests, the DTFL and the GT-200 captured 38 and 76% of the house flies, respectively, and 3 and 18% of the stable flies, respectively, after 4 h. At 4 h in paired tests, the DTFL and the GT-200 captured 3 and 66% of the house flies, respectively, and 2 and 16% of the stable flies, respectively. Depending on the intended use, either trap was considered efficacious in capturing house flies when used alone. Differences in trap performance are discussed.

Turning Ultraviolet Light Traps On and Off Increases Their Attraction to House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae).

Pairs of electrocutor-grid ultraviolet light traps were assigned to three treatments to evaluate the effects of illumination events, e.g., light traps turned on, on house fly, Musca domestica L., attraction as indicated by numbers of flies captured by the traps. Both traps in treatment 1 were illuminated constantly (no illumination event). Both traps in treatment 2 were turned on, illuminated for 1 h, then turned off for 1 h, then repeated (1 illumination event every 2 h). Traps in treatment 3 were operated singularly. One trap was turned on for 1 h, then turned off. As it turned off, the other trap turned on for 1 h, then turned off, then repeated (1 illumination event every hour). The mean number of flies attracted per trap pair was significantly greater in treatment 1 than in treatments 2 or 3. However, in treatment 3, with one trap illuminated at a time and hourly illumination events, the mean fly catch was just 27% less, numerically, than the mean number of flies attracted to treatment 1 with both traps illuminated constantly. The effects of intermittent lighting and its potential use are discussed.

Evaluation of Cyanarox Insecticidal Bait Against Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae).

Most scatter or granular toxic fly baits are intended to be used against house flies, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). Attractants have been developed to make baits house fly-specific to avoid wasting bait on nontarget flies. Cyanarox Insecticidal Bait (IB) (formerly Zyrox Granular Fly Bait) appeared on the market recently and field reports suggested that stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), were being attracted to the bait. There was little doubt that the toxicant, cyantraniliprole, which is formulated to kill house flies, should readily kill stable flies if enough is consumed, but it seemed highly unusual that blood-feeding stable flies would be attracted to the bait. Proof of concept tests were conducted to determine if stable flies would feed on Cyanarox IB. When confined in small cages, mortality exceeded 90% after a 3-d exposure. Stable flies (200) were released in each of two large windowless rooms and Cyanarox IB was placed in small containers at the label rate at floor level in four locations per room. Mortality reached 90% after a 5-d exposure, which indicated that stable flies were attracted to the bait, actively found it and fed on it. The Cyanarox IB Material Safety Data Sheet lists an undisclosed amount of sucrose as part of the bait composition. Stable flies are known to feed on many sugar sources in the environment and the sucrose associated with the Cyanarox IB may explain why stable flies find it attractive.

A comparison of the Nzi, Horse Pal® and Bite-Lite® H-traps and selected baits for the collection of adult Tabanidae in Florida and North Carolina.

Despite the veterinary and medical importance of horse flies, deer flies, and yellow flies, only a few trap types have been evaluated to monitor adult population dynamics. Currently, three trap types are being utilized (H-trap, Horse Pal® (HP), and Nzi trap), but no head-to-head comparisons have been reported. Thus, we conducted comparative trapping studies in Florida and North Carolina. At two study sites in Florida, the efficacy of all three trap types was compared, but only the H-trap and HP were compared in North Carolina. Although trap type was significant at all sites, the trap type which caught the most specimens was not the same. In Florida at the Lower Suwannee Wildlife Refuge (LSWR) site, the H-trap caught the most specimens (2,006), followed in decreasing order by Nzi (938) and HP (541). At the Cedar Ridge Ranch site, the Nzi caught significantly more specimens (1,439) than the H-trap (215) and HP (161), which were not significantly different from each other. In North Carolina, the H-trap caught approximately twice as many specimens as the HP (1,458 vs 720). These trap comparison studies were followed up by a study on the efficacy of various bait combinations: (No Bait (NB), dry ice only (DI), Trap Tech Lure (TTL) only, and DI + TTL), which was conducted only at the two Florida sites with H-traps. At both sites, bait combinations significantly affected trap collections. One pattern (DI +TTL > DI > TTL > NB) was recorded at the LSWR, while at the Cedar River Ranch the pattern was DI > DI +TTL > TTL > NB. Our data showed that trap type and bait combination significantly influence overall adult tabanid abundance as well as individual species composition.

Blue and Black Cloth Targets: Effects of Size, Shape, and Color on Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Attraction.

Stable fly management is challenging because of the fly's dispersal behavior and its tendency to remain on the host only while feeding. Optically attractive traps have been used to survey and sometimes reduce adult populations. Insecticide-treated blue and black cloth targets developed for tsetse fly management in Africa were found to be attractive to stable flies in the United States, and various evaluations were conducted in Louisiana and Florida. Tests using untreated targets were designed to answer questions about configuration, size, and color relative to efficacy and stability in high winds. Studies with electric grid targets and with targets paired with Olson traps showed cloth target color attraction in the following decreasing order: black > blue-black > blue. A solid black target is easier to make than a blue-black target because no sewing is involved. Attraction was not affected when flat 1-m2 targets were formed into cylinders, despite the limited view of the blue and black colors together. There was no reduction in attraction when the 1-m2 cylindrical targets were compared with smaller (63 × 30 cm high) cylindrical targets. In addition, there was no difference in attraction between the small blue-black, blue, and black targets. Significance of findings and implications of potential uses for treated targets are discussed. Target attraction was indicated by the numbers of stable flies captured on an Olson sticky trap placed 30 cm from the target. Although this system is adequate for field research, it greatly underestimates the actual numbers of stable flies attracted to treated targets.

Improved capture of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) by placement of knight stick sticky fly traps protected by electric fence inside animal exhibit yards at the Smithsonian's National Zoological Park.

Stable flies are noxious blood-feeding pests of exotic animals at zoological parks, inflicting painful bites, and causing discomfort to animals. Stable fly management is difficult because of the flies' tendency to remain on the host animals only when feeding. Non-toxic traps can be efficient but traps placed around exhibit perimeters captured fewer-than-expected numbers of flies. By surrounding traps with square electric fence enclosures, traps could be placed in the exhibits with the host animals and compared with an equal number of traps placed along perimeter fences. During a 21-week study, traps inside exhibits captured 5× more stable flies than traps placed along exhibit perimeters. Traps inside exhibits tended to show more fluctuations in fly populations than traps along perimeters. The increased numbers of flies captured using this technique should provide relief from this pestiferous fly and greatly improve animal health and welfare. We believe this to be the first study where traps were used to capture stable flies in exhibit yards at a zoological park.

The Knight Stick Trap and Knight Stick Sticky Wraps: New Tools for Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Management.

Stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), management can be difficult, especially in situations where pesticide usage is restricted or disallowed. Traps have been used for monitoring stable flies, but have rarely been used for management. The Knight Stick (KS) trap recently became available, and preliminary studies indicated that it might be an improvement to traps currently in use. The Olson Sticky Fly trap was chosen as the control trap for the purpose of comparisons. Both traps attract stable flies by alteration of light waves and capture flies on a sticky wrap covering the trap base. The KS trap captured 3× more stable flies than the Olson trap, whereas the Olson trap base covered with the KS Sticky wrap captured 3-5× more stable flies than the Olson trap base with the standard Olson Sticky wrap. This indicated inherent attraction from the KS Sticky wrap. This was supported when KS Tank wraps, a larger version of the KS Sticky wraps, applied to 51 kg of liquid propane (LP) tanks on Mosquito Magnet Independence traps producing CO2, captured significantly more stable flies and significantly more stable flies per square centimeter of sticky wrap than Olson Sticky Sleeve wraps applied to the LP tanks. In a final study, when two configurations of KS Tank wraps were applied to white plastic barrels and compared with three standard KS traps, mean numbers of stable flies captured were numerically similar. The significance of findings and potential uses for the traps are discussed.

Prevalence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 From House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) and Dairy Samples in North Central Florida1.

La detección de Escherichia coli O157:H7 en las lecherías es importante para mejorar la seguridad de los productos lácteos, y se ha llevado a cabo principalmente mediante el aislamiento de las bacterias a partir de las muestras de estiércol. Sin embargo, los componentes biliares presentes en el estiércol complica la identificación genética utilizando la técnica del PCR, y el aislamiento microbiológico se dificulta por la presencia de bacterias competidoras que comparten características microbiológicas similares. El aislamiento de E. coli O157:H7 a partir de la mosca doméstica evita las dificultades asociadas con el estiércol del ganado. El aislamiento de patógenos a partir de las moscas domésticas proporciona información adicional sobre el potencial impacto epidemiológico de la dispersión de la mosca doméstica en la distribución de patógenos, ya que las moscas domésticas se dispersan desde las lecherías donde la E. coli O157:H7 existe en forma endémica en el ganado. En este estudio, se encontró que las moscas domésticas son 2,6 veces más sensibles para la detección de E. coli O157:H7 en las lecherías. Las moscas son más fáciles de capturar y manejar que el estiércol, y deberían ser utilizadas en cualquier ensayo para detectar E. coli O157:H7 en las lecherías y otros establecimientos.

Development and Evaluation of an Attractive Self-Marking Ovitrap to Measure Dispersal and Determine Skip Oviposition in Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Field Populations.

Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is a container-breeding species with considerable public health importance. To date, Ae. albopictus oviposition behavior has been assessed in outdoor conditions, but only with laboratory-reared specimens. In outdoor large-cage and field studies, we used an attractive self-marking ovipositional device to assess Ae. albopictus skip oviposition behavior. In field studies, 37 wild Ae. albopictus that visited an attractive self-marking ovisite were subsequently captured at a sticky ovitrap within a 4-d period. Because the average Ae. albopictus gonotrophic period is 4.5-6 d, the wild-caught Ae. albopictus visited at least two oviposition sites within a single gonotrophic period. This provided field-based indirect evidence of skip oviposition. The mean distance traveled (MDT) during the 20-d evaluations ranged from 58 to 78 m. The maximum observed distance traveled was 149 m, which was the outer edge of our trapping ability. As populations of Ae. albopictus increased, the MDT during the 4- and 20-d post-marking period increased significantly. Additional observations of wild-marked and captured Aedes triseriatus (Say) are discussed.

The Effects of Larval Habitat Quality on Aedes albopictus Skip Oviposition.

Aedes albopictus is an invasive mosquito species that transmits human-disease-causing pathogens. It is a container-inhabiting species that oviposits in resource-limited habitats. To mitigate larval competition, Ae. albopictus females may choose to distribute eggs from a single gonotrophic cycle among multiple containers through skip oviposition. With the use of individual females released in indoor and outdoor caged trials, we evaluated the oviposition choices made by gravid Ae. albopictus offered larval habitats with different qualities. Our results demonstrate that Ae. albopictus performs skip oviposition and that the degree of egg distribution is related to the quality of the larval habitat. In a 4-choice arena, individual Ae. albopictus oviposited in fewer containers when presented with ovisites of high-quality larval habitat (uncrowded conditions) compared with oviposition in low-quality (crowded conditions) larval habitats. Additionally, the females selectively oviposited in high-quality habitats when offered both low- and high-quality habitats, but distributed eggs more evenly among multiple high-quality habitats. Our results have important implications for mosquito management plans that include the use of lethal ovitraps, as well as the role of this behavior in distribution of disease-causing pathogens.

Response of the sand fly Phlebotomuspapatasi to visual, physical and chemical attraction features in the field.

In this study, 27 CDC traps were modified with various attractive features and compared with a CDC trap with no light source or baits to evaluate the effects on attraction to Phlebotomus papatasi (Scopoli) north of the Dead Sea near Jericho. Attractive features included CO2, lights, colored trap bodies, heat, moisture, chemical lures and different combinations of the same. Traps were placed 20m apart and rotated from one trap location to the next after 24h trapping periods. The most significant attractive feature was CO2, which attracted more sand flies than any other feature evaluated. Ultraviolet light was the next most attractive feature, followed by incandescent light. When evaluated alone, black or white trap bodies, heat and moisture, all influenced trap catch but effects were greater when these attractive features were used together. The results of this study suggest that traps with CO2 and UV light could be used in batteries as control interventions if suitable CO2 sources become available.

Spatial distribution, seasonality and trap preference of stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans L. (Diptera: Muscidae), adults on a 12-hectare zoological park.

Although this study was originally designed to compare the efficacy of two different stable fly traps within 10 sites at a 12-ha zoological park, seasonal and spatial population distribution data were simultaneously collected. The two traps included an Alsynite fiberglass cylindrical trap (AFT) and a blue-black cloth target modified into a cylindrical trap (BCT). Both traps were covered with sticky sleeves to retain the attracted flies. Paired trap types were placed at sites that were 20-100 m apart. Distance between trap pairs within sites ranged from 1 to 2 m, and was limited by exhibit design and geography. Both trap types reflect/refract ultraviolet (UV) light which attracts adult S. calcitrans. During this 15-week study, AFTs captured significantly more stable flies than the BCTs at 8 of the 10 sites. Of the 12,557 stable flies found on the traps, 80% and 20% were captured by AFTs and BCTs, respectively. The most attractive trap site at the zoo was at the goat exhibit where most stable flies were consistently captured throughout the study. This exhibit was 100 m from the other exhibits, next to a small lake, and adjacent to a field containing pastured exotic ungulates, rhea and ostrich. Stable fly populations peaked in early June then slowly decreased as the last trapping date approached. We believe this to be the first seasonality data collected at a zoological park. Results demonstrate the use of urban zoos by stable flies and the need to develop environmentally friendly stable fly management systems for zoos.

Laboratory Colonization of the Blow Flies, Chrysomya megacephala (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and Chrysomya rufifacies (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

Chrysomya megacephala (F.) and Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) were colonized so that larval growth rates could be compared. Colonies were also established to provide insight into the protein needs of adult C. rufifacies and developmental rates of the ensuing larvae. The C. megacephala and C. rufifacies laboratory colonies were reared for five and six generations, respectively, at 28°C. C. megacephala developmental mean rate from egg to adult was 20.4 ± 0.38 d. First-instar larvae emerge in 1.4 ± 0.24 d, second-instar larvae develop in 2.6 ± 0.38 d and third instars occur at 6.3 ± 0.72 d. Development from egg to pupation occurred in 12 ± 1.10 d. C. rufifacies developed at a mean rate of 16.2 ± 0.78 d from egg to adult emergence. Each stage occurred in succession from first-instar larvae 1.1 ± 0.25 d, second-instar larvae developed 2.3 ± 0.25 d later, and the third-instar larvae developed 5.7 ± 0.41 d later. The larvae pupated 10.0 ± 0.57 d after oviposition. Both of these flies can be collected in the wild and easily colonized using conditioned chicken as an oviposition and larval medium. C. megacephala apparently prefers a lower development and maintenance temperature than C. rufifacies, as evidenced by the high pupal mortality. Laboratory-reared C. rufifacies benefited from bloodmeal as a protein supplement to enhance egg production. C. rufifacies larvae were not observed preying on each other and additional larval species were not provided to serve as prey.

High-throughput mosquito and fly bioassay system for natural and artificial substrates treated with residual insecticides.

A high-throughput bioassay system to evaluate the efficacy of residual pesticides against mosquitoes and muscid flies with minimal insect handling was developed. The system consisted of 4 components made of readily available materials: 1) a CO2 anaesthetizing chamber, 2) a specialized aspirator, 3) a cylindrical flat-bottomed glass bioassay chamber assembly, and 4) a customized rack.