Heterogeneous field response of hierarchical polar laminates in relaxor ferroelectrics.

Understanding the microscopic origin of the superior electromechanical response in relaxor ferroelectrics requires knowledge not only of the atomic-scale formation of polar nanodomains (PNDs) but also the rules governing the arrangements and stimulated response of PNDs over longer distances. Using x-ray coherent nanodiffraction, we show the staggered self-assembly of PNDs into unidirectional mesostructures that we refer to as polar laminates in the relaxor ferroelectric 0.68PbMg1/3Nb2/3O3-0.32PbTiO3 (PMN-0.32PT). We reveal the highly heterogeneous electric-field-driven responses of intra- and interlaminate PNDs and establish their correlation with the local strain and the nature of the PND walls. Our observations highlight the critical role of hierarchical lattice organizations on macroscopic material properties and provide guiding principles for the understanding and design of relaxors and a wide range of quantum and functional materials.

Unrecoverable lattice rotation governs structural degradation of single-crystalline cathodes.

Transitioning from polycrystalline to single-crystalline nickel-rich cathodes has garnered considerable attention in both academia and industry, driven by advantages of high tap density and enhanced mechanical properties. However, cathodes with high nickel content (>70%) suffer from substantial capacity degradation, which poses a challenge to their commercial viability. Leveraging multiscale spatial resolution diffraction and imaging techniques, we observe that lattice rotations occur universally in single-crystalline cathodes and play a pivotal role in the structure degradation. These lattice rotations prove unrecoverable and govern the accumulation of adverse lattice distortions over repeated cycles, contributing to structural and mechanical degradation and fast capacity fade. These findings bridge the previous knowledge gap that exists in the mechanistic link between fast performance failure and atomic-scale structure degradation.

Deep learning at the edge enables real-time streaming ptychographic imaging.

Coherent imaging techniques provide an unparalleled multi-scale view of materials across scientific and technological fields, from structural materials to quantum devices, from integrated circuits to biological cells. Driven by the construction of brighter sources and high-rate detectors, coherent imaging methods like ptychography are poised to revolutionize nanoscale materials characterization. However, these advancements are accompanied by significant increase in data and compute needs, which precludes real-time imaging, feedback and decision-making capabilities with conventional approaches. Here, we demonstrate a workflow that leverages artificial intelligence at the edge and high-performance computing to enable real-time inversion on X-ray ptychography data streamed directly from a detector at up to 2 kHz. The proposed AI-enabled workflow eliminates the oversampling constraints, allowing low-dose imaging using orders of magnitude less data than required by traditional methods.

Sub-Nanosecond Reconfiguration of Ferroelectric Domains in Bismuth Ferrite.

Domain switching is crucial for achieving desired functions in ferroic materials that are used in various applications. Fast control of domains at sub-nanosecond timescales remains a challenge despite its potential for high-speed operation in random-access memories, photonic, and nanoelectronic devices. Here, ultrafast laser excitation is shown to transiently melt and reconfigure ferroelectric stripe domains in multiferroic bismuth ferrite on a timescale faster than 100 picoseconds. This dynamic behavior is visualized by picosecond- and nanometer-resolved X-ray diffraction and time-resolved X-ray diffuse scattering. The disordering of stripe domains is attributed to the screening of depolarization fields by photogenerated carriers resulting in the formation of charged domain walls, as supported by phase-field simulations. Furthermore, the recovery of disordered domains exhibits subdiffusive growth on nanosecond timescales, with a non-equilibrium domain velocity reaching up to 10 m s-1 . These findings present a new approach to image and manipulate ferroelectric domains on sub-nanosecond timescales, which can be further extended into other complex photoferroic systems to modulate their electronic, optical, and magnetic properties beyond gigahertz frequencies. This approach could pave the way for high-speed ferroelectric data storage and computing, and, more broadly, defines new approaches for visualizing the non-equilibrium dynamics of heterogeneous and disordered materials.

Deterministic nanoscale quantum spin-defect implantation and diffraction strain imaging.

Local crystallographic features negatively affect quantum spin defects by changing the local electrostatic environment, often resulting in degraded or varied qubit optical and coherence properties. Few tools exist that enable the deterministic synthesis and study of such intricate systems on the nano-scale, making defect-to-defect strain environment quantification difficult. In this paper, we highlight state-of-the-art capabilities from the U.S. Department of Energy's Nanoscale Science Research Centers that directly address these shortcomings. Specifically, we demonstrate how complementary capabilities of nano-implantation and nano-diffraction can be used to demonstrate the quantum relevant, spatially deterministic creation of neutral divacancy centers in 4H silicon carbide, while investigating and characterizing these systems on the≤25nmscale with strain sensitivities on the order of1×10-6,relevant to defect formation dynamics. This work lays the foundation for ongoing studies into the dynamics and deterministic formation of low strain homogeneous quantum relevant spin defects in the solid state.

Interstitial Nature of Mn2+ Doping in 2D Perovskites.

Halide perovskites doped with magnetic impurities (such as the transition metals Mn2+, Co2+, Ni2+) are being explored for a wide range of applications beyond photovoltaics, such as spintronic devices, stable light-emitting diodes, single-photon emitters, and magneto-optical devices. However, despite several recent studies, there is no consensus on whether the doped magnetic ions will predominantly replace the octahedral B-site metal via substitution or reside at interstitial defect sites. Here, by performing correlated nanoscale X-ray microscopy, spatially and temporally resolved photoluminescence measurements, and magnetic force microscopy on the inorganic 2D perovskite Cs2PbI2Cl2, we show that doping Mn2+ into the structure results in a lattice expansion. The observed lattice expansion contrasts with the predicted contraction expected to arise from the B-site metal substitution, thus implying that Mn2+ does not replace the Pb2+ sites. Photoluminescence and electron paramagnetic resonance measurements confirm the presence of Mn2+ in the lattice, while correlated nano-XRD and X-ray fluorescence track the local strain and chemical composition. Density functional theory calculations predict that Mn2+ atoms reside at the interstitial sites between two octahedra in the triangle formed by one Cl- and two I- atoms, which results in a locally expanded structure. These measurements show the fate of the transition metal dopants, the local structure, and optical emission when they are doped at dilute concentrations into a wide band gap semiconductor.

Rational design of mechanically robust Ni-rich cathode materials via concentration gradient strategy.

Mechanical integrity issues such as particle cracking are considered one of the leading causes of structural deterioration and limited long-term cycle stability for Ni-rich cathode materials of Li-ion batteries. Indeed, the detrimental effects generated from the crack formation are not yet entirely addressed. Here, applying physicochemical and electrochemical ex situ and in situ characterizations, the effect of Co and Mn on the mechanical properties of the Ni-rich material are thoroughly investigated. As a result, we successfully mitigate the particle cracking issue in Ni-rich cathodes via rational concentration gradient design without sacrificing the electrode capacity. Our result reveals that the Co-enriched surface design in Ni-rich particles benefits from its low stiffness, which can effectively suppress the formation of particle cracking. Meanwhile, the Mn-enriched core limits internal expansion and improve structural integrity. The concentration gradient design also promotes morphological stability and cycling performances in Li metal coin cell configuration.

Nanoscale Imaging and Control of Volatile and Non-Volatile Resistive Switching in VO2.

Control of the metal-insulator phase transition is vital for emerging neuromorphic and memristive technologies. The ability to alter the electrically driven transition between volatile and non-volatile states is particularly important for quantum-materials-based emulation of neurons and synapses. The major challenge of this implementation is to understand and control the nanoscale mechanisms behind these two fundamental switching modalities. Here, in situ X-ray nanoimaging is used to follow the evolution of the nanostructure and disorder in the archetypal Mott insulator VO2 during an electrically driven transition. Our findings demonstrate selective and reversible stabilization of either the insulating or metallic phases achieved by manipulating the defect concentration. This mechanism enables us to alter the local switching response between volatile and persistent regimes and demonstrates a new possibility for nanoscale control of the resistive switching in Mott materials.

Perovskite neural trees.

Trees are used by animals, humans and machines to classify information and make decisions. Natural tree structures displayed by synapses of the brain involves potentiation and depression capable of branching and is essential for survival and learning. Demonstration of such features in synthetic matter is challenging due to the need to host a complex energy landscape capable of learning, memory and electrical interrogation. We report experimental realization of tree-like conductance states at room temperature in strongly correlated perovskite nickelates by modulating proton distribution under high speed electric pulses. This demonstration represents physical realization of ultrametric trees, a concept from number theory applied to the study of spin glasses in physics that inspired early neural network theory dating almost forty years ago. We apply the tree-like memory features in spiking neural networks to demonstrate high fidelity object recognition, and in future can open new directions for neuromorphic computing and artificial intelligence.

Ferroelectric Domain Wall Motion in Freestanding Single-Crystal Complex Oxide Thin Film.

Ferroelectric domain walls in single-crystal complex oxide thin films are found to be orders of magnitude slower when the interfacial bonds with the heteroepitaxial substrate are broken to create a freestanding film. This drastic change in domain wall kinetics does not originate from the alteration of epitaxial strain; rather, it is correlated with the structural ripples at mesoscopic length scale and associated flexoelectric effects induced in the freestanding films. In contrast, the effects of the bond-breaking on the local static ferroelectric properties of both top and bottom layers of the freestanding films, such as domain wall width and spontaneous polarization, are modest and governed by the change in epitaxy-induced compressive strain.

Stabilization of point-defect spin qubits by quantum wells.

Defect-based quantum systems in wide bandgap semiconductors are strong candidates for scalable quantum-information technologies. However, these systems are often complicated by charge-state instabilities and interference by phonons, which can diminish spin-initialization fidelities and limit room-temperature operation. Here, we identify a pathway around these drawbacks by showing that an engineered quantum well can stabilize the charge state of a qubit. Using density-functional theory and experimental synchrotron X-ray diffraction studies, we construct a model for previously unattributed point defect centers in silicon carbide as a near-stacking fault axial divacancy and show how this model explains these defects' robustness against photoionization and room temperature stability. These results provide a materials-based solution to the optical instability of color centers in semiconductors, paving the way for the development of robust single-photon sources and spin qubits.

Quantifying Polymer Chain Orientation in Strong and Tough Nanofibers with Low Crystallinity: Toward Next Generation Nanostructured Superfibers.

Advanced fibers revolutionized structural materials in the second half of the 20th century. However, all high-strength fibers developed to date are brittle. Recently, pioneering simultaneous ultrahigh strength and toughness were discovered in fine (<250 nm) individual electrospun polymer nanofibers (NFs). This highly desirable combination of properties was attributed to high macromolecular chain alignment coupled with low crystallinity. Quantitative analysis of the degree of preferred chain orientation will be crucial for control of NF mechanical properties. However, quantification of supramolecular nanoarchitecture in NFs with low crystallinity in the ultrafine diameter range is highly challenging. Here, we discuss the applicability of traditional as well as emerging methods for quantification of polymer chain orientation in nanoscale one-dimensional samples. Advantages and limitations of different techniques are critically evaluated on experimental examples. It is shown that straightforward application of some of the techniques to sub-wavelength-diameter NFs can lead to severe quantitative and even qualitative artifacts. Sources of such size-related artifacts, stemming from instrumental, materials, and geometric phenomena at the nanoscale, are analyzed on the example of polarized Raman method but are relevant to other spectroscopic techniques. A proposed modified, artifact-free method is demonstrated. Outstanding issues and their proposed solutions are discussed. The results provide guidance for accurate nanofiber characterization to improve fundamental understanding and accelerate development of nanofibers and related nanostructured materials produced by electrospinning or other methods. We expect that the discussion in this review will also be useful to studies of many biological systems that exhibit nanofilamentary architectures and combinations of high strength and toughness.

Correlated Nanoscale Analysis of the Emission from Wurtzite versus Zincblende (In,Ga)As/GaAs Nanowire Core-Shell Quantum Wells.

While the properties of wurtzite GaAs have been extensively studied during the past decade, little is known about the influence of the crystal polytype on ternary (In,Ga)As quantum well structures. We address this question with a unique combination of correlated, spatially resolved measurement techniques on core-shell nanowires that contain extended segments of both the zincblende and wurtzite polytypes. Cathodoluminescence hyperspectral imaging reveals a blue-shift of the quantum well emission energy by 75 ± 15 meV in the wurtzite polytype segment. Nanoprobe X-ray diffraction and atom probe tomography enable k·p calculations for the specific sample geometry to reveal two comparable contributions to this shift. First, there is a 30% drop in In mole fraction going from the zincblende to the wurtzite segment. Second, the quantum well is under compressive strain, which has a much stronger impact on the hole ground state in the wurtzite than in the zincblende segment. Our results highlight the role of the crystal structure in tuning the emission of (In,Ga)As quantum wells and pave the way to exploit the possibilities of three-dimensional band gap engineering in core-shell nanowire heterostructures. At the same time, we have demonstrated an advanced characterization toolkit for the investigation of semiconductor nanostructures.

Homogenized halides and alkali cation segregation in alloyed organic-inorganic perovskites.

The role of the alkali metal cations in halide perovskite solar cells is not well understood. Using synchrotron-based nano-x-ray fluorescence and complementary measurements, we found that the halide distribution becomes homogenized upon addition of cesium iodide, either alone or with rubidium iodide, for substoichiometric, stoichiometric, and overstoichiometric preparations, where the lead halide is varied with respect to organic halide precursors. Halide homogenization coincides with long-lived charge carrier decays, spatially homogeneous carrier dynamics (as visualized by ultrafast microscopy), and improved photovoltaic device performance. We found that rubidium and potassium phase-segregate in highly concentrated clusters. Alkali metals are beneficial at low concentrations, where they homogenize the halide distribution, but at higher concentrations, they form recombination-active second-phase clusters.

Mesoscopic Elastic Distortions in GaAs Quantum Dot Heterostructures.

Quantum devices formed in high-electron-mobility semiconductor heterostructures provide a route through which quantum mechanical effects can be exploited on length scales accessible to lithography and integrated electronics. The electrostatic definition of quantum dots in semiconductor heterostructure devices intrinsically involves the lithographic fabrication of intricate patterns of metallic electrodes. The formation of metal/semiconductor interfaces, growth processes associated with polycrystalline metallic layers, and differential thermal expansion produce elastic distortion in the active areas of quantum devices. Understanding and controlling these distortions present a significant challenge in quantum device development. We report synchrotron X-ray nanodiffraction measurements combined with dynamical X-ray diffraction modeling that reveal lattice tilts with a depth-averaged value up to 0.04° and strain on the order of 10-4 in the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in a GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure. Elastic distortions in GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures modify the potential energy landscape in the 2DEG due to the generation of a deformation potential and an electric field through the piezoelectric effect. The stress induced by metal electrodes directly impacts the ability to control the positions of the potential minima where quantum dots form and the coupling between neighboring quantum dots.

Domain alignment within ferroelectric/dielectric PbTiO3/SrTiO3 superlattice nanostructures.

The ferroelectric domain pattern within lithographically defined PbTiO3/SrTiO3 ferroelectric/dielectric heteroepitaxial superlattice nanostructures is strongly influenced by the edges of the structures. Synchrotron X-ray nanobeam diffraction reveals that the spontaneously formed 180° ferroelectric stripe domains exhibited by such superlattices adopt a configuration in rectangular nanostructures in which domain walls are aligned with long patterned edges. The angular distribution of X-ray diffuse scattering intensity from nanodomains indicates that domains are aligned within an angular range of approximately 20° with respect to the edges. Computational studies based on a time-dependent Landau-Ginzburg-Devonshire model show that the preferred direction of the alignment results from lowering of the bulk and electrostrictive contributions to the free energy of the system due to the release of the lateral mechanical constraint. This unexpected alignment appears to be intrinsic and not a result of distortions or defects caused by the patterning process. Our work demonstrates how nanostructuring and patterning of heteroepitaxial superlattices allow for pathways to create and control ferroelectric structures that may appear counterintuitive.

Measuring Three-Dimensional Strain and Structural Defects in a Single InGaAs Nanowire Using Coherent X-ray Multiangle Bragg Projection Ptychography.

III-As nanowires are candidates for near-infrared light emitters and detectors that can be directly integrated onto silicon. However, nanoscale to microscale variations in structure, composition, and strain within a given nanowire, as well as variations between nanowires, pose challenges to correlating microstructure with device performance. In this work, we utilize coherent nanofocused X-rays to characterize stacking defects and strain in a single InGaAs nanowire supported on Si. By reconstructing diffraction patterns from the 21̅1̅0 Bragg peak, we show that the lattice orientation varies along the length of the wire, while the strain field along the cross-section is largely unaffected, leaving the band structure unperturbed. Diffraction patterns from the 011̅0 Bragg peak are reproducibly reconstructed to create three-dimensional images of stacking defects and associated lattice strains, revealing sharp planar boundaries between different crystal phases of wurtzite (WZ) structure that contribute to charge carrier scattering. Phase retrieval is made possible by developing multiangle Bragg projection ptychography (maBPP) to accommodate coherent nanodiffraction patterns measured at arbitrary overlapping positions at multiple angles about a Bragg peak, eliminating the need for scan registration at different angles. The penetrating nature of X-ray radiation, together with the relaxed constraints of maBPP, will enable the in operando imaging of nanowire devices.

Phase Coexistence and Kinetic Arrest in the Magnetostructural Transition of the Ordered Alloy FeRh.

In materials where two or more ordering degrees of freedom are closely matched in their free energies, coupling between them, or multiferroic behavior can occur. These phenomena can produce a very rich phase behavior, as well as emergent phases that offer useful properties and opportunities to reveal novel phenomena in phase transitions. The ordered alloy FeRh undergoes an antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic phase transition at ~375 K, which illustrates the interplay between structural and magnetic order mediated by a delicate energy balance between two configurations. We have examined this transition using a combination of high-resolution x-ray structural and magnetic imaging and comprehensive x-ray magnetic circular dichroism spectroscopy. We find that the transition proceeds via a defect-driven domain nucleation and growth mechanism, with significant return point memory in both the structural and magnetic domain configurations. The domains show evidence of inhibited growth after nucleation, resulting in a quasi-2nd order temperature behavior.

Nanoscale Detection of Intermediate Solid Solutions in Equilibrated LixFePO4 Microcrystals.

Redox-driven phase transformations in solids determine the performance of lithium-ion batteries, crucial in the technological transition from fossil fuels. Couplings between chemistry and strain define reversibility and fatigue of an electrode. The accurate definition of all phases in the transformation, their energetics, and nanoscale location within a particle produces fundamental understanding of these couplings needed to design materials with ultimate performance. Here we demonstrate that scanning X-ray diffraction microscopy (SXDM) extends our ability to image battery processes in single particles. In LiFePO4 crystals equilibrated after delithiation, SXDM revealed the existence of domains of miscibility between LiFePO4 and Li0.6FePO4. These solid solutions are conventionally thought to be metastable, and were previously undetected by spectromicroscopy. The observation provides experimental verification of predictions that the LiFePO4-FePO4 phase diagram can be altered by coherency strain under certain interfacial orientations. It enriches our understanding of the interaction between diffusion, chemistry, and mechanics in solid state transformations.

Strain imaging of nanoscale semiconductor heterostructures with x-ray Bragg projection ptychography.

We report the imaging of nanoscale distributions of lattice strain and rotation in complementary components of lithographically engineered epitaxial thin film semiconductor heterostructures using synchrotron x-ray Bragg projection ptychography (BPP). We introduce a new analysis method that enables lattice rotation and out-of-plane strain to be determined independently from a single BPP phase reconstruction, and we apply it to two laterally adjacent, multiaxially stressed materials in a prototype channel device. These results quantitatively agree with mechanical modeling and demonstrate the ability of BPP to map out-of-plane lattice dilatation, a parameter critical to the performance of electronic materials.