Exploring the Role of Self-Control Across Distinct Patterns of Cyber-Deviance in Emerging Adolescence.

A disproportionally large number of adolescents engage in cyber-deviance. However, it is unclear if distinct patterns of adolescent cyber-deviance are evident, and if so, whether and to what extent low self-control is associated with different patterns of cyber-deviance. The current study addressed this research gap by examining the relationship between self-control and distinct latent classes of adolescent cyber-deviance net of potential confounders among a cross-sectional sample of 1793 South Australian adolescents. Four latent classes were identified, each characterized by varying probabilities of involvement in six types of cyber-deviance that were measured. The versatile class (n = 413) had the lowest average level of self-control, followed by the harmful content users (n = 439) and digital piracy (n = 356) classes, with the abstainer class (n = 585) characterized by the highest self-control. Analysis of covariance indicated that the abstainer group had significantly higher self-control than other classes of cyber-deviance. Although the versatile class had noticeably lower average self-control scores than the harmful content users and digital piracy groups, this difference was not significant after correcting for multiple comparisons. Collectively, these findings suggest that self-control appears to distinguish between those who do and do not engage in cyber-deviance but may not distinguish between distinct patterns of cyber-deviance net of other factors.

An Exploration of the Involuntary Celibate (Incel) Subculture Online.

Incels, a portmanteau of the term involuntary celibates, operate in online communities to discuss difficulties in attaining sexual relationships. Past reports have found that multiple elements of the incel culture are misogynistic and favorable towards violence. Further, several violent incidents have been linked to this community, which suggests that incel communities may resemble other ideologically motivated extremist groups. The current study employed an inductive qualitative analysis of over 8,000 posts made in two online incel communities to identify the norms, values, and beliefs of these groups from a subcultural perspective. Analyses found that the incel community was structured around five interrelated normative orders: the sexual market, women as naturally evil, legitimizing masculinity, male oppression, and violence. The implications of this analysis for our understanding of extremism and the role of the internet in radicalization to violence are considered in depth.

Assessing the Factors Associated With the Detection of Juvenile Hacking Behaviors.

Research on delinquency reduction often highlights the importance of identifying and sanctioning antisocial and illegal activities so as to reduce the likelihood of future offending. The rise of digital technology complicates the process of detecting cybercrimes and technology enabled offenses, as individuals can use devices from anywhere to engage in various harmful activities that may appear benign to an observer. Despite the growth of cybercrime research, limited studies have examined the extent to which technology enabled offenses are detected, or the behavioral and attitudinal factors associated with being unobserved or caught for one's actions. The current study addresses this gap in the literature by estimating a multinomial regression model for self-reported computer hacking behavior and the likelihood of those actions being detected in a large international sample of juveniles (N = 51,059). The findings demonstrate significant differences between youth who hack without detection compared to those who are caught. The implications of this analysis for our understanding of cybercrime and its relationship to traditional delinquency are explored in depth.

Examining Self-Reported Physical Contact With Minors Among Pedophile Support Forum Users.

Minimal research has considered the extent to which pedophile social support forum users disclose physical relationships with minors in the course of their posts. As these forums cater to those who express sexual interests in minors, the users may be at higher risk for contact offenses and require unique treatment and supervision. To address this gap in the literature, this study utilized a quantitative analysis of the posts from 806 users from four separate pedophile support forums to identify the correlates of self-disclosed contact with minors. The findings demonstrated that although most users do not disclose physical contact, those who do share several common traits, specifically fantasies of minors, mentions of relationships with minors, and a sexually suggestive username. The implications of this analysis for our understanding of the role of online forums and potential clinical treatment are discussed in detail.

Examining the Social Organization Practices of Cybercriminals in the Netherlands Online and Offline.

This study focuses on the organization practices of networks of cybercriminals engaged in serious financial offenses, through a qualitative analysis of the Best and Luckenbill's sociological framework. The study utilized data collected regarding 18 separate criminals investigations from the Netherlands. The results demonstrate that the participants within these networks operated at various stages of deviant sophistication. Surprisingly, the majority of networks exhibit organizational sophistication based on their division of labor and extended duration over time. In fact, most of this sample could be classified as "teams" or "formal organizations." Furthermore, in contrast with prior studies, no loners were present and only a few networks could be classified as "colleagues" or "peers."

Exploring the Factors Associated With Rejection From a Closed Cybercrime Community.

Research examining the illicit online market for cybercrime services operating via web forums, such as malicious software, personal information, and hacking tools, has greatly improved our understanding of the practices of buyers and sellers, and the social forces that structure actor behavior. The majority of these studies are based on open markets, which can be accessed by anyone with minimal barriers to entry. There are, however, closed communities operating online that are thought to operate with greater trust and reliability between participants, as they must be vetted and approved by existing community members. The decision to allow individuals to join a forum may reflect restrictive deterrence practices on the part of existing members, as those applicants may threaten the security or operations of the group. This study utilized a quantitative analysis to understand the factors associated with rejection for individuals who sought membership in the organized and sophisticated closed forum run by and for cybercriminals called Darkode. The findings demonstrated that individuals whose perceived engagement with the hacker community and cybercrime marketplace were considered too risky for membership. The implications of this study for our understanding of restrictive deterrence theory, as well as criminal market operations on and offline were explored in depth.

Assessing the Macro-Level Correlates of Malware Infections Using a Routine Activities Framework.

The ability to gain unauthorized access to computer systems to engage in espionage and data theft poses a massive threat to individuals worldwide. There has been minimal focus, however, on the role of malicious software, or malware, which can automate this process. This study examined the macro-correlates of malware infection at the national level by using an open repository of known malware infections and utilizing a routine activities framework. Negative inflated binomial models for counts indicated that nations with greater technological infrastructure, more political freedoms, and with less organized crime financial impact were more likely to report malware infections. The number of Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) in a nation was not significantly related with reported malware infection. The implications of the study for the understanding of malware infection, routine activity theory, and target-hardening strategies are discussed.

Assessing the Risk Factors of Cyber and Mobile Phone Bullying Victimization in a Nationally Representative Sample of Singapore Youth.

This study utilized routine activity theory to examine the relationships between online behaviors, target suitability, and cyber and mobile phone-based bullying victimization in a nationally representative sample of youth from nine schools across Singapore. Key measures in all three categories-access to technology, online routine behaviors, and target suitability-were significant predictors of both forms of bullying victimization. In particular, females and victims of physical bullying were more likely to experience both forms of victimization. Access to technology and online routine behaviors predicted cyber and mobile phone-based bullying victimization differently. These findings demonstrate that routine activity theory is a viable framework to understand online bullying in non-Western nations, consistent with the existing literature on Western nations.

Predictors of patrol officer interest in cybercrime training and investigation in selected United States police departments.

Cybercrime has created substantial challenges for law enforcement, particularly at the local level. Most scholars and police administrators believe that patrol officers need to become more effective first responders to cybercrime calls. The evidence illustrates, however, that many patrol officers are neither adequately prepared nor strongly interested in taking an active role in addressing cybercrime at the local level. This study, therefore, examined the factors that predicted patrol officer interest in cybercrime training and investigations in two southeastern U.S. cities. The study specifically examined the relationship between demographics, cybercrime exposure, computer training, computer proficiency, Internet and cybercrime perceptions, and views on policing cybercrime with officer interest in cybercrime investigation training and conducting cybercrime investigations in the future. Officer views on policing cybercrime, particularly whether they valued cybercrime investigations and believed that cybercrime would dramatically change policing, along with their computer skills, were the strongest predictors of interest in cybercrime efforts. Officers who had received previous computer training were less interested in additional training and conducting investigations. These findings support the argument that more command and departmental meetings focusing on the value of investigating these types of crime need to be held in order to increase officer interest.

Considering the pedophile subculture online.

The development of the Internet and computer-mediated communications has fostered the growth of a wide range of deviant sexual behaviors along with deviant subcultures that support and approve of these behaviors. Some of these practices pose little risk to public safety, though acts such as pedophilia and the creation and distribution of child pornography have significant negative ramifications for victims. A growing literature has examined the function of the Internet for child pornography distribution, social networks of pedophiles, and tactics of child solicitation. Few, however, have explored the utility of the Internet to develop a subculture of pedophiles and its role in fostering attitudes and justifications for relationships with children. This study will explore the subcultural norms and enculturation of the pedophile community using a qualitative analysis of five Web forums run by and for pedophiles. The findings suggest that the values of the pedophile culture support and encourage emotional and, in some cases, sexual relationships with boys and girls in virtual and real settings. Implications for the study of pedophiles and the role of the Internet are explored.

Evaluation of risk factors for the spread of low pathogenicity H7N2 avian influenza virus among commercial poultry farms.

OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors associated with the spread of low pathogenicity H7N2 avian influenza (AI) virus among commercial poultry farms in western Virginia during an outbreak in 2002. DESIGN: Case-control study. PROCEDURE: Questionnaires were used to collect information about farm characteristics, biosecurity measures, and husbandry practices on 151 infected premises (128 turkey and 23 chicken farms) and 199 noninfected premises (167 turkey and 32 chicken farms). RESULTS: The most significant risk factor for AI infection was disposal of dead birds by rendering (odds ratio [OR], 73). In addition, age > or = 10 weeks (OR for birds aged 10 to 19 weeks, 4.9; OR for birds aged > or = 20 weeks, 4.3) was a significant risk factor regardless of poultry species involved. Other significant risk factors included use of nonfamily caretakers and the presence of mammalian wildlife on the farm. Factors that were not significantly associated with infection included use of various routine biosecurity measures, food and litter sources, types of domestic animals on the premises, and presence of wild birds on the premises. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that an important factor contributing to rapid early spread of AI virus infection among commercial poultry farms during this outbreak was disposal of dead birds via rendering off-farm. Because of the highly infectious nature of AI virus and the devastating economic impact of outbreaks, poultry farmers should consider carcass disposal techniques that do not require off-farm movement, such as burial, composting, or incineration.