Activation of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4 Promotes the Proliferation of Stem Cells in the Adult Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus.

Neurogenesis plays an important role in adult hippocampal function, and this process can be modulated by intracellular calcium. The activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) induces an increase in intracellular calcium concentration, but whether neurogenesis can be modulated by TRPV4 activation remains unclear. Here, we report that intracerebroventricular injection of the TRPV4 agonist GSK1016790A for 5 days enhanced the proliferation of stem cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) of adult mice without affecting neurite growth, differentiation, or survival of newborn cells. GSK1016790A induced increases in the hippocampal protein levels of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 6, CDK2, cyclin E1, and cyclin A2 but did not affect CDK4 and cyclin D1 expression. The phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (Rb) in hippocampi was enhanced in GSK1016790A-injected mice compared with control mice. Moreover, hippocampal protein levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) phosphorylation were enhanced by GSK1016790A. Finally, GSK1016790A-enhanced proliferation was markedly blocked by a MAPK/ERK kinase or p38 MAPK antagonist (U0126 or SB203580, respectively). The increased protein levels of CDK2 and CDK6, as well as those of cyclin E1 and cyclin A2, in GSK1016790A-injected mice were substantially reduced by co-injection of U0126 or SB203580. We conclude that TRPV4 activation results in the proliferation of stem cells in the adult hippocampal DG, which is likely mediated through ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK signaling to increase the expression of CDKs (CDK6 and CDK2) and cyclins (cyclin E1 and A2), phosphorylate Rb consequently, and accelerate the cell cycle ultimately.

Enhanced Oxidative Stress Is Responsible for TRPV4-Induced Neurotoxicity.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) has been reported to be responsible for neuronal injury in pathological conditions. Excessive oxidative stress can lead to neuronal damage, and activation of TRPV4 increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) in many types of cells. The present study explored whether TRPV4-induced neuronal injury is mediated through enhancing oxidative stress. We found that intracerebroventricular injection of the TRPV4 agonist GSK1016790A increased the content of methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) and NO in the hippocampus, which was blocked by administration of the TRPV4 specific antagonist HC-067047. The activities of catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) were decreased by GSK1016790A, whereas the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) remained unchanged. Moreover, the protein level and activity of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) were increased by GSK1016790A, and the GSK1016790A-induced increase in NO content was blocked by an nNOS specific antagonist ARL-17477. The GSK1016790A-induced modulations of CAT, GSH-Px and nNOS activities and the protein level of nNOS were significantly inhibited by HC-067047. Finally, GSK1016790A-induced neuronal death and apoptosis in the hippocampal CA1 area were markedly attenuated by administration of a ROS scavenger Trolox or ARL-17477. We conclude that activation of TRPV4 enhances oxidative stress by inhibiting CAT and GSH-Px and increasing nNOS, which is responsible, at least in part, for TRPV4-induced neurotoxicity.

Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4 Inhibits γ-Aminobutyric Acid-Activated Current in Hippocampal Pyramidal Neurons.

The balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems is crucial for the modulation of neuronal excitability in the central nervous system (CNS). The activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) is reported to enhance the response of hippocampal glutamate receptors, but whether the inhibitory neurotransmitter system can be regulated by TRPV4 remains unknown. γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Here, we show that application of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) synthetic (GSK1016790A or 4α-PDD) or endogenous agonist (5,6-EET) inhibited GABA-activated current (I GABA) in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons, which was blocked by specific antagonists of TRPV4 and of GABAA receptors. GSK1016790A increased the phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK) and decreased the phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt) protein levels, which was attenuated by removing extracellular calcium or by a calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase-ß antagonist. GSK1016790A-induced decrease of p-Akt protein level was sensitive to an AMPK antagonist. GSK1016790A-inhibited I GABA was blocked by an AMPK antagonist or a phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase (PI3K) agonist. GSK1016790A-induced inhibition of I GABA was also significantly attenuated by a protein kinase C (PKC) antagonist but was unaffected by protein kinase A or calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II antagonist. We conclude that activation of TRPV4 inhibits GABAA receptor, which may be mediated by activation of AMPK and subsequent down-regulation of PI3K/Akt signaling and activation of PKC signaling. Inhibition of GABAA receptors may account for the neuronal hyperexcitability caused by TRPV4 activation.

Activation of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4 is Involved in Neuronal Injury in Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Mice.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) is widely expressed in the central nervous system and can be activated by multiple stimuli during cerebral ischemia. Recently, we reported that intracerebroventricular (icv.) injection of HC-067047, a specific TRPV4 antagonist, reduced brain infarction following 60-min of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). This study was undertaken to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying TRPV4-mediated neuronal injury in cerebral ischemia. We demonstrated that TRPV4 expression was upregulated in the ipsilateral hippocampus at 4 to 48 h post-MCAO, peaking at 18 h post-MCAO. Treatment with TRPV4 antagonists (HC-067047 and ruthenium red) dose-dependently reduced brain infarction at 24 h post-MCAO. Phosphorylation of protein kinase B (p-Akt) was downregulated and that of extracellular signal-related kinase (p-ERK) was upregulated at 8 to 24 h post-MCAO, which was markedly blocked by treatment with HC-067047. Icv. injection of GSK1016790A (a TRPV4 agonist), dose-dependently induced hippocampal neuronal death, accompanied by an increase in phosphorylation of the NR2B subunit of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). In addition, the level of p-Akt was decreased and that of p-ERK was increased by GSK1016790A-injection, which was sensitive to an NR2B antagonist. The neuronal toxicity of GSK1016790A was blocked by treatment with an NR2B antagonist and a phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) agonist but not by administration of a MAPK/ERK kinase antagonist. We conclude that the activation of TRPV4 is upregulated and involved in neuronal injury during cerebral ischemia and that the neurotoxicity associated with TRPV4-activation is mediated through NR2B-NMDAR and the related downregulation of the Akt signaling pathway.

Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4-Induced Modulation of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels in Hippocampal Neurons.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) is reported to control the resting membrane potential and increase excitability in many types of cells. Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) play an important role in initiating action potentials in neurons. However, whether VGSCs can be modulated by the activation of TRPV4 in hippocampal pyramidal neurons remains unknown. In this study, we tested the effect of TRPV4 agonists (GSK1016790A and 4α-PDD) on voltage-gated sodium current (I Na) in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons and the protein levels of α/ß-subunit of VGSCs in the hippocampus of mice subjected to intracerebroventricular (icv.) injection of GSK1016790A (GSK-injected mice). Herein, we report that I Na was inhibited by acute application of GSK1016790A or 4α-PDD. In the presence of TRPV4 agonists, the voltage-dependent inactivation curve shifted to the hyperpolarization, whereas the voltage-dependent activation curve remained unchanged. The TRPV4 agonist-induced inhibition of I Na was blocked by the TRPV4 antagonist or tetrodotoxin. Moreover, blocking protein kinase A (PKA) markedly attenuated the GSK1016790A-induced inhibition of I Na, whereas antagonism of protein kinase C or p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase did not change GSK1016790A action. Finally, the protein levels of Nav1.1, Nav1.2, and Nav1.6 in the hippocampus increased in GSK-injected mice, whereas those of Nav1.3 and Navß1 remained nearly unchanged. We conclude that I Na is inhibited by the acute activation of TRPV4 through PKA signaling pathway in hippocampal pyramidal neurons, but protein expression of α-subunit of VGSCs is increased by sustained TRPV4 activation, which may compensate for the acute inhibition of I Na and provide a possibility for hyper-excitability upon sustained TRPV4 activation.

Blockage of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 inhibits brain edema in middle cerebral artery occlusion mice.

Brain edema is an important pathological process during stroke. Activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) causes an up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in lung tissue. MMP can digest the endothelial basal lamina to destroy blood brain barrier, leading to vasogenic brain edema. Herein, we tested whether TRPV4-blockage could inhibit brain edema through inhibiting MMPs in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) mice. We found that the brain water content and Evans blue extravasation at 48 h post-MCAO were reduced by a TRPV4 antagonist HC-067047. The increased MMP-2/9 protein expression in hippocampi of MCAO mice was attenuated by HC-067046, but only the increased MMP-9 activity was blocked by HC-067047. The loss of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin protein in MCAO mice was also attenuated by HC-067047. Moreover, MMP-2/9 protein expression increased in mice treated with a TRPV4 agonist GSK1016790A, but only MMP-9 activity was increased by GSK1016790A. Finally, ZO-1 and occludin protein expression was decreased by GSK1016790A, which was reversed by an MMP-9 inhibitor. We conclude that blockage of TRPV4 may inhibit brain edema in cerebral ischemia through inhibiting MMP-9 activation and the loss of tight junction protein.