The effect of open-air factors on the virulence and viability of airborne Francisella tularensis.

Unidentified open-air factors (OAFs) found to be adverse to the survival of microorganisms suspended on microthreads were investigated for their effect on realistic aerosols of Francisella tularensis in an open-air environment. This organism was chosen because it is probably the most infectious organism known to be capable of infecting both animals and man via the respiratory route, hence its potential use as a bioterrorist agent. A direct correlation was found between an open-air adverse effect on viability and virulence of airborne particles of <3 microm via the respiratory route in guinea pigs. One viable organism was sufficient to initiate an infection that resulted in a fatal tularaemia infection. The lethal effect of OAFs on F. tularensis was found to vary from day to day and was related to the source of the air in the UK. The adverse effect on viability was associated with an inverse effect according to the size of the airborne particle.

Safety evaluation of a natural tomato oleoresin extract derived from food-processing tomatoes.

Experimental and epidemiological studies indicate that consumption of tomato products containing high amounts of lycopene is associated with lowered cancer risk. The protective effects of lycopene may be related to its antioxidant potential. Lycopene has been demonstrated to inhibit oxidation. A proprietary, natural tomato oleoresin extract (NTOE), is a purified tomato oleoresin containing 6% lycopene produced from tomatoes. NTOE was evaluated for toxicological effects, and found the 50% lethal dose (LD(50)), derived from the acute oral toxicity study, was greater than 5000 mg/kg body weight. The no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) derived from the 13-week study was 4500 mg/kg/day. Acute dermal toxicity study of NTOE found no toxicity at 2000 mg/kg body weight. NTOE lacked dermal irritation in the rabbit model, but was found to have moderate eye-irritant capabilities. NTOE tested at 5% (w/w) in petroleum jelly was a moderate sensitizer in the guinea pig model. There was no evidence of mutagenic potential up to 5000 microg/plate, as determined by the Ames assay. These results demonstrate the inability of NTOE to produce oral, dermal or mutagenic toxicity in animal models at doses greater than 300 times the normal human consumption of lycopene. Consumption analysis of lycopene-containing foods estimated mean daily intake of lycopene at 8.2mg/day.

Effects of microsomal enzyme inducers on thyroid follicular cell proliferation and thyroid hormone metabolism.

The effects of microsomal enzyme inducers on thyroid hormone homeostasis and the thyroid gland are of concern. We have investigated the effects of microsomal enzyme inducers on thyroid follicular cell proliferation and thyroid hormone metabolism in rats. We have shown that small increases in serum TSH can result in large increases in thyroid follicular cell proliferation. Furthermore, only those microsomal enzyme inducers that increase serum TSH--that is, phenobarbital (PB) and pregnenolone-16alpha-carbonitrile (PCN)-increase thyroid follicular cell proliferation, whereas those microsomal enzyme inducers that do not increase serum TSH--that is, 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC) and Aroclor 1254 (PCB)-do not increase thyroid follicular cell proliferation. Deiodination does not appear to be the reason why serum T3 concentrations are maintained in microsomal enzyme inducer-treated rats. We have also shown that those microsomal enzyme inducers that increase serum TSH increase T3 UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) activity, whereas those microsomal enzyme inducers that do not increase serum TSH do not increase T3 UGT activity. This finding suggests that induction of T3 glucuronidation, rather than T4 glucuronidation, mediates increases in serum TSH of microsomal enzyme inducer treated rats.

X-ray crystal structure of human dopamine sulfotransferase, SULT1A3. Molecular modeling and quantitative structure-activity relationship analysis demonstrate a molecular basis for sulfotransferase substrate specificity.

Humans are one of the few species that produce large amounts of catecholamine sulfates, and they have evolved a specific sulfotransferase, SULT1A3 (M-PST), to catalyze the formation of these conjugates. An orthologous protein has yet to be found in other species. To further our understanding of the molecular basis for the unique substrate selectivity of this enzyme, we have solved the crystal structure of human SULT1A3, complexed with 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphate (PAP), at 2.5 A resolution and carried out quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) analysis with a series of phenols and catechols. SULT1A3 adopts a similar fold to mouse estrogen sulfotransferase, with a central five-stranded beta-sheet surrounded by alpha-helices. SULT1A3 is a dimer in solution but crystallized with a monomer in the asymmetric unit of the cell, although dimer interfaces were formed by interaction across crystallographic 2-fold axes. QSAR analysis revealed that the enzyme is highly selective for catechols, and catecholamines in particular, and that hydrogen bonding groups and lipophilicity (cLogD) strongly influenced K(m). We also investigated further the role of Glu(146) in SULT1A3 using site-directed mutagenesis and showed that it plays a key role not only in defining selectivity for dopamine but also in preventing many phenolic xenobiotics from binding to the enzyme.

Sulfation of thyroid hormone by estrogen sulfotransferase.

Sulfation is one of the pathways by which thyroid hormone is inactivated. Iodothyronine sulfate concentrations are very high in human fetal blood and amniotic fluid, suggesting important production of these conjugates in utero. Human estrogen sulfotransferase (SULT1E1) is expressed among other tissues in the uterus. Here we demonstrate for the first time that SULT1E1 catalyzes the facile sulfation of the prohormone T4, the active hormone T3 and the metabolites rT3 and 3,3'-diiodothyronine (3,3'-T2) with preference for rT3 approximately 3,3'-T2 > T3 approximately T4. Thus, a single enzyme is capable of sulfating two such different hormones as the female sex hormone and thyroid hormone. The potential role of SULT1E1 in fetal thyroid hormone metabolism needs to be considered.

The UDP-glucuronyltransferase inducers, phenobarbital and pregnenolone-16alpha-carbonitrile, enhance thyroid-follicular cell apoptosis: association with TGF-beta1 expression.

Exposure to certain UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UDP-GT) inducers leads to follicular cell hyperplasia, and ultimately thyroid gland tumors. These compounds decrease thyroid hormones, which increases serum concentrations of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). This induction of TSH enhances thyroid-follicular cell proliferation. In addition, treatment with classical goitrogenic compounds, such as propylthiouracil (PTU) and methimazole (MMI), induces TGF-beta1 in thyroid-follicular cells, presumably through increased TSH. In other tissues, increases in TGF-beta1 induce apoptosis, a particular form of programmed cell death. In this experiment, we sought to determine whether the UDP-GT inducers, phenobarbital (PB) and pregnenolone-16alpha-carbonitrile (PCN) modulate thyroid-follicular cell apoptosis. If so, are the induction of apoptosis and TGF-beta1 possibly linked? An additional group of rats treated with the thyroid goitrogen, PTU was included. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with thyroid hormone disrupting doses of PB, PCN, or PTU for 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 45, or 90 days. In this study, PTU treatment increased apoptosis and TGF-beta1 immunoreactive thyroid-follicular cells. PTU treatment of rats produced both a large increase number of TGF-beta1-positive cells (detected by immunohistochemistry), and apoptotic thyroid-follicular cells (detected by morphology). In PB- and PCN-treated rats, a moderate increase in apoptosis coincided with similar increases in TGF-beta1 immunoreactive thyroid-follicular cells. In summary, PB and PCN increase apoptosis and the percentage of TGF-beta1 positive thyroid-follicular cells. Thus, treatment with UDP-GT-inducing chemicals may increase the expression of TGF-beta1 and apoptosis in the thyroid to compensate for the thyroid hypertrophy and hyperplasia.

A single amino acid, glu146, governs the substrate specificity of a human dopamine sulfotransferase, SULT1A3.

Sulfation, catalyzed by members of the sulfotransferase (SULT) superfamily, exerts considerable influence over the biological activity of numerous endogenous and xenobiotic chemicals. In humans, catecholamines such as dopamine are extensively sulfated, and a SULT isoform (SULT1A3 or the monoamine-sulfating form of phenolsulfotransferase) has evolved with considerable selectivity for dopamine and other biogenic amines. To investigate the molecular basis for this selectivity, we identified a region of SULT1A3, which, we hypothesized, contributes to its preference for biogenic amines, and mutated two amino acids within this domain to the corresponding residues in a closely related but functionally distinct phenol sulfotransferase, SULT1A1 (H143Y and E146A). The change of a single amino acid, E146A, was sufficient to transform the catalytic properties and substrate preference of SULT1A3, such that they closely resembled those of SULT1A1. These experiments confirm the functional role of Glu146 in the selectivity of SULT1A3 for biogenic amines and suggest that this region is a key determinant of sulfotransferase substrate specificity.

A medium for the isolation, enumeration and rapid presumptive identification of injured Clostridium perfringens and Bacillus cereus.

A blood-free egg yolk medium (BCP) containing pyruvate, inositol, mannitol and a bromocresol purple indicator in a nutrient agar base has been developed to initiate the growth of Clostridium perfringens. It is comparable to blood agar for the growth of normal, chilled stored vegetative cells and heat-injured spores of Cl. perfringens and Bacillus cereus. It has the advantage over blood agar in exhibiting presumptive evidence of Cl. perfringens (production of lecithinase and inositol fermentation) after an overnight incubation at 43 degrees - 45 degrees C. Pyruvate, catalase and other hydrogen peroxide degraders were found to remove toxins rapidly formed in media exposed to air and light. Free radical scavengers of superoxide, hydroxyl ions and singlet oxygen were ineffective. Without scavengers the formation of 10-20 micrograms/ml hydrogen peroxide in the exposed medium was indicated and found lethal to injured Cl. perfringens. The BCP medium has been used successfully for the rapid identification and enumeration of Cl. perfringens in foods and faeces from food poisoning outbreaks and cases of suspected infectious diarrhoea. Greater recovery of severely injured vegetative Cl. perfrigens could be obtained by pre-incubation at 37 degrees C of inoculated media for 2-4 h followed by overnight incubation at 43 degrees - 45 degrees C. Tryptose-sulphite-cycloserine and Shahidi-Ferguson-perfringens agar base were found to inhibit the growth of several strains of injured vegetative Cl. perfringens. This was not completely overcome by the addition of pyruvate. The inclusion of mannitol also allows the medium to be used for the presumptive identification of B. cereus. Growth and lecithinase activity are profuse on BCP. Heat-injured spores are recovered equally well on BCP and blood agar. A scheme for the identification of some other clostridia on BCP is presented.

The extent of surface contamination of retailed chickens with Campylobacter jejuni serogroups.

Eighty-two chickens purchased at 11 retailers (supplied by 12 wholesalers) in the south of England were cultured for Campylobacter jejuni by a method involving total immersion. The organism was isolated from 22 (48%) of 46 fresh birds, 12 of 12 uneviscerated (New York dressed) birds, but only 1 of 24 frozen birds. Viable counts of up to 1.5 x 10(6)/chicken were obtained from fresh birds and 2.4 x 10(7)/chicken from uneviscerated birds. Surface swabbing of breasts, thighs, wings and vents of fresh chickens showed that contamination was generally distributed over the carcasses. Salmonellas were found in only 2 of 69 of the fresh chickens. The prevalence of several Lior and Penner C. jejuni serogroups was similar in chickens and sporadic human cases of enteritis. Penner serogroup 4 (mostly of Lior serogroup 1) was found in 26% of human isolates and 14% of chicken isolates. The rising incidence of campylobacter enteritis during the last 6 years could well be a reflection of the increasing proportion of fresh chickens consumed over that period (32% higher in 1986 than in 1981).

Virulence factors of Francisella tularensis.

The mechanism causing viable Francisella tularensis to lose virulence in aerosols has been investigated. Fully virulent organisms were found to be encapsulated and avirulent organisms from aged aerosols, decapsulated. Capsules were also removed by suspension of F. tularensis in hypertonic sodium chloride. The resulting naked, but viable, organisms were predominantly avirulent for guinea-pigs challenged intraperitoneally. Capsular material and cell walls were found to contain large amounts of lipid, about 50 and 70% (w/w) respectively, and to differ in lipid and sugar composition. Isolated capsular material was not found to contain a lethal toxin for mice or guinea-pigs, or to induce an immunological response in these animals to fully virulent F. tularensis.

Open-air factors in enclosed systems.

Ventilation of vessels varying widely in size was found to preserve the toxic effect of open-air factor(s). There was a correlation between the minimum rates of ventilation required and the ratios of the surface area of the vessels to their volumes. The data obtained allowed an estimate to be made of the diffusion coefficient of open-air factor(s) and gave an indication that the molecular weight range of the open air factor(s) was from 50 to 150.

Method for comparing concentrations of the open-air factor.

It is shown how concentrations of the open-air factor may be compared from day to day; this has not been possible previously.

An indoor system for the study of biological aerosols in open air conditions.

An indoor system designed for the study of survival of airborne micro-organisms in closed conditions has been successfully modified to allow the effect of open air to be measured. It was found that the unidentified open-air factors which are toxic for many species of microbes and rapidly lost when enclosed in conventional laboratory apparatus could be retained in the system by continuous ventilation at an adequate rate. The rate required allowed examination of Escherichia coli in aerosols generated from small amounts of material because of the short periods of ventilation required for appreciable viable decay to occur.The validity of the system was tested by comparing the survival of E. coli in true aerosols with its survival when the droplets were held on microthread. An investigation of the role of relative humidity in open-air toxicity was included.

Viricidal activity of open air.

Airborne Semliki Forest virus and T coliphages were inactivated at a considerably enhanced rate in open air compared with enclosed air. Open air exerts its maximum sterilizing activity on viruses contained in the smallest sized particles.