The Generated Entropy Monitored by Pyroelectric Sensors.

Entropy generation in irreversible processes is a critical issue that affects the failure and aging of electrical, chemical or mechanical systems. The promotion of energy conversion efficiency needs to reduce energy losses, namely to decrease entropy generation. A pyroelectric type of entropy detector is proposed to monitor energy conversion processes in real time. The entropy generation rate can be derived from the induced pyroelectric current, temperature, thermal capacity, pyroelectric coefficient and electrode area. It is profitable to design entropy detectors to maintain a small thermal capacity while pyroelectric sensors minimize geometrical dimensions. Moreover, decreasing the electrode area of the PZT cells could avoid affecting the entropy variation of the measured objects, but the thickness of the cells has to be greatly reduced to promote the temperature variation rate and strengthen the electrical signals. A commercial capacitor with a capacitance of 47 µF and a maximum endured voltage of 4 V were used to estimate the entropy to act as an indicator of the capacitors' time-to-failure. The threshold time was evaluated by using the entropy generation rates at about 7.5 s, 11.25 s, 20 s and 30 s for the applied voltages of 40 V, 35 V, 30 V and 25 V respectively, while using a PZT cell with dimensions of 3 mm square and a thickness of 200 µm.

A Strip Cell in Pyroelectric Devices.

The pyroelectric effect affords the opportunity to convert temporal temperature fluctuations into usable electrical energy in order to develop abundantly available waste heat. A strip pyroelectric cell, used to enhance temperature variation rates by lateral temperature gradients and to reduce cell capacitance to further promote the induced voltage, is described as a means of improving pyroelectric energy transformation. A precision dicing saw was successfully applied in fabricating the pyroelectric cell with a strip form. The strip pyroelectric cell with a high-narrow cross section is able to greatly absorb thermal energy via the side walls of the strips, thereby inducing lateral temperature gradients and increasing temperature variation rates in a thicker pyroelectric cell. Both simulation and experimentation show that the strip pyroelectric cell improves the electrical outputs of pyroelectric cells and enhances the efficiency of pyroelectric harvesters. The strip-type pyroelectric cell has a larger temperature variation when compared to the trenched electrode and the original type, by about 1.9 and 2.4 times, respectively. The measured electrical output of the strip type demonstrates a conspicuous increase in stored energy as compared to the trenched electrode and the original type, by of about 15.6 and 19.8 times, respectively.

Study on Pyroelectric Harvesters with Various Geometry.

Pyroelectric harvesters convert time-dependent temperature variations into electric current. The appropriate geometry of the pyroelectric cells, coupled with the optimal period of temperature fluctuations, is key to driving the optimal load resistance, which enhances the performance of pyroelectric harvesters. The induced charge increases when the thickness of the pyroelectric cells decreases. Moreover, the induced charge is extremely reduced for the thinner pyroelectric cell when not used for the optimal period. The maximum harvested power is achieved when a 100 µm-thick PZT (Lead zirconate titanate) cell is used to drive the optimal load resistance of about 40 MΩ. Moreover, the harvested power is greatly reduced when the working resistance diverges even slightly from the optimal load resistance. The stored voltage generated from the 75 µm-thick PZT cell is less than that from the 400 µm-thick PZT cell for a period longer than 64 s. Although the thinner PZT cell is advantageous in that it enhances the efficiency of the pyroelectric harvester, the much thinner 75 µm-thick PZT cell and the divergence from the optimal period further diminish the performance of the pyroelectric cell. Therefore, the designers of pyroelectric harvesters need to consider the coupling effect between the geometry of the pyroelectric cells and the optimal period of temperature fluctuations to drive the optimal load resistance.

A Meliorated Multi-Frequency Band Pyroelectric Sensor.

This article proposes a meliorated multi-frequency band pyroelectric sensor for detecting subjects with various velocities, namely extending the sensing frequency under good performance from electrical signals. A tactic, gradually increasing thickness of the ZnO layers, is used for redeeming drawbacks of a thicker pyroelectric layer with a tardy response at a high-frequency band and a thinner pyroelectric layer with low voltage responsivity at a low-frequency band. The proposed sensor is built on a silicon substrate with a thermal isolation layer of a silicon nitride film, consisting of four pyroelectric layers with various thicknesses deposited by a sputtering or aerosol deposition (AD) method and top and bottom electrodes. The thinnest ZnO layer is deposited by sputtering, with a low thermal capacity and a rapid response shoulders a high-frequency sensing task, while the thicker ZnO layers are deposited by AD with a large thermal capacity and a tardy response shoulders a low-frequency sensing task. The fabricated device is effective in the range of 1 KHz~10 KHz with a rapid response and high voltage responsivity, while the ZnO layers with thicknesses of about 0.8 µm, 6 µm, 10 µm and 16 µm are used for fabricating the meliorated multi-frequency band pyroelectric sensor. The proposed sensor is successfully designed, analyzed, and fabricated in the present study, and can indeed extend the sensing range of the multi-frequency band.

Multi-frequency band pyroelectric sensors.

A methodology is proposed for designing a multi-frequency band pyroelectric sensor which can detect subjects with various frequencies or velocities. A structure with dual pyroelectric layers, consisting of a thinner sputtered ZnO layer and a thicker aerosol ZnO layer, proved helpful in the development of the proposed sensor. The thinner sputtered ZnO layer with a small thermal capacity and a rapid response accomplishes a high-frequency sensing task, while the thicker aerosol ZnO layer with a large thermal capacity and a tardy response is responsible for low-frequency sensing tasks. A multi-frequency band pyroelectric sensor is successfully designed, analyzed and fabricated in the present study. The range of the multi-frequency sensing can be estimated by means of the proposed design and analysis to match the thicknesses of the sputtered and the aerosol ZnO layers. The fabricated multi-frequency band pyroelectric sensor with a 1 µm thick sputtered ZnO layer and a 20 µm thick aerosol ZnO layer can sense a frequency band from 4000 to 40,000 Hz without tardy response and low voltage responsivity.

A rapid process for fabricating gas sensors.

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a low-toxicity and environmentally-friendly material applied on devices, sensors or actuators for "green" usage. A porous ZnO film deposited by a rapid process of aerosol deposition (AD) was employed as the gas-sensitive material in a CO gas sensor to reduce both manufacturing cost and time, and to further extend the AD application for a large-scale production. The relative resistance change (△R/R) of the ZnO gas sensor was used for gas measurement. The fabricated ZnO gas sensors were measured with operating temperatures ranging from 110 °C to 180 °C, and CO concentrations ranging from 100 ppm to 1000 ppm. The sensitivity and the response time presented good performance at increasing operating temperatures and CO concentrations. AD was successfully for applied for making ZnO gas sensors with great potential for achieving high deposition rates at low deposition temperatures, large-scale production and low cost.

Improving pyroelectric energy harvesting using a sandblast etching technique.

Large amounts of low-grade heat are emitted by various industries and exhausted into the environment. This heat energy can be used as a free source for pyroelectric power generation. A three-dimensional pattern helps to improve the temperature variation rates in pyroelectric elements by means of lateral temperature gradients induced on the sidewalls of the responsive elements. A novel method using sandblast etching is successfully applied in fabricating the complex pattern of a vortex-like electrode. Both experiment and simulation show that the proposed design of the vortex-like electrode improved the electrical output of the pyroelectric cells and enhanced the efficiency of pyroelectric harvesting converters. A three-dimensional finite element model is generated by commercial software for solving the transient temperature fields and exploring the temperature variation rate in the PZT pyroelectric cells with various designs. The vortex-like type has a larger temperature variation rate than the fully covered type, by about 53.9%.The measured electrical output of the vortex-like electrode exhibits an obvious increase in the generated charge and the measured current, as compared to the fully covered electrode, by of about 47.1% and 53.1%, respectively.

Improved response of ZnO films for pyroelectric devices.

Increasing the temperature variation rate is a useful method for enhancing the response of pyroelectric devices. A three-dimensional ZnO film was fabricated by the aerosol deposition (AD) rapid process using the shadow mask method, which induces lateral temperature gradients on the sidewalls of the responsive element, thereby increasing the temperature variation rate. To enhance the quality of the film and reduce the concentration of defects, the film was further treated by laser annealing, and the integration of a comb-like top electrode enhanced the voltage response and reduced the response time of the resulting ZnO pyroelectric devices.

Improvement of pyroelectric cells for thermal energy harvesting.

This study proposes trenching piezoelectric (PZT) material in a thicker PZT pyroelectric cell to improve the temperature variation rate to enhance the efficiency of thermal energy-harvesting conversion by pyroelectricity. A thicker pyroelectric cell is beneficial in generating electricity pyroelectrically, but it hinders rapid temperature variations. Therefore, the PZT sheet was fabricated to produce deeper trenches to cause lateral temperature gradients induced by the trenched electrode, enhancing the temperature variation rate under homogeneous heat irradiation. When the trenched electrode type with an electrode width of 200 µm and a cutting depth of 150 µm was used to fabricate a PZT pyroelectric cell with a 200 µm thick PZT sheet, the temperature variation rate was improved by about 55%. Therefore, the trenched electrode design did indeed enhance the temperature variation rate and the efficiency of pyroelectric energy converters.

Temperature field analysis for PZT pyroelectric cells for thermal energy harvesting.

This paper proposes the idea of etching PZT to improve the temperature variation rate of a thicker PZT sheet in order to enhance the energy conversion efficiency when used as pyroelectric cells. A partially covered electrode was proven to display a higher output response than a fully covered electrode did. A mesh top electrode monitored the temperature variation rate and the electrode area. The mesh electrode width affected the distribution of the temperature variation rate in a thinner pyroelectric material. However, a pyroelectric cell with a thicker pyroelectric material was beneficial in generating electricity pyroelectrically. The PZT sheet was further etched to produce deeper cavities and a smaller electrode width to induce lateral temperature gradients on the sidewalls of cavities under homogeneous heat irradiation, enhancing the temperature variation rate.

Biomechanical analysis of distal radius fractures using intramedullary Kirschner wires.

Colles's fracture is the most common type of distal radius fracture. Surgically, it remains a challenge to restore radial height and volar tilt in order to regain optimal wrist function. Ulson's procedure provides a dynamic effect on fixing fractured fragments and restoring joint function using two wires. However, the biomechanical influences of bone and wire remain critical issues for fracture reduction and bone union in Ulson's procedure. Based on elastic beam and foundation theory, this study formulated a closed-form mathematical model to investigate the effects of bone and wire parameters on wire deflection and bony reaction. The wire deflection and bony reaction were chosen as the indices of wrist stability and reduction within the post-operative period. The predicted results showed that greater bone strength, higher wire stiffness, and longer wire contact length provide a more stable wire-bone construct, thus facilitating fracture reduction and bone union. The wire stiffness had a much more significant effect on the construct stability compared with bone quality and contact length. In terms of entry point and insertion angle, surgical planning for the contact length was more important than bony quality for stabilizing the whole wire-bone construct.

Fabrication of a ZnO Pyroelectric Sensor.

This paper proposes a two-step radio frequency (RF) sputtering process to forma ZnO film for pyroelectric sensors. It is shown that the two-step sputtering process with alower power step followed by a higher power step can significantly improve the voltageresponsivity of the ZnO pyroelectric sensor. The improvement is attributed mainly to theformation of ZnO film with a strongly preferred orientation towards the c-axis.Furthermore, a nickel film deposited onto the uncovered parts of the ZnO film caneffectively improve the voltage responsivity at higher modulating frequencies since thenickel film can enhance the incident energy absorption of the ZnO layer.

Interbody fusion cage design using integrated global layout and local microstructure topology optimization.

STUDY DESIGN: An approach combining global layout and local microstructure topology optimization was used to create a new interbody fusion cage design that concurrently enhanced stability, biofactor delivery, and mechanical tissue stimulation for improved arthrodesis. OBJECTIVE: To develop a new interbody fusion cage design by topology optimization with porous internal architecture. To compare the performance of this new design to conventional threaded cage designs regarding early stability and long-term stress shielding effects on ingrown bone. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Conventional interbody cage designs mainly fall into categories of cylindrical or rectangular shell shapes. The designs contribute to rigid stability and maintain disc height for successful arthrodesis but may also suffer mechanically mediated failures of dislocation or subsidence, as well as the possibility of bone resorption. The new optimization approach created a cage having designed microstructure that achieved desired mechanical performance while providing interconnected channels for biofactor delivery. METHODS: The topology optimization algorithm determines the material layout under desirable volume fraction (50%) and displacement constraints favorable to bone formation. A local microstructural topology optimization method was used to generate periodic microstructures for porous isotropic materials. Final topology was generated by the integration of the two-scaled structures according to segmented regions and the corresponding material density. Image-base finite element analysis was used to compare the mechanical performance of the topology-optimized cage and conventional threaded cage. RESULTS: The final design can be fabricated by a variety of Solid Free-Form systems directly from the image output. The new design exhibited a narrower, more uniform displacement range than the threaded cage design and lower stress at the cage-vertebra interface, suggesting a reduced risk of subsidence. Strain energy density analysis also indicated that a higher portion of total strain energy density was transferred into the new bone region inside the new designed cage, indicating a reduced risk of stress shielding. CONCLUSION: The new design approach using integrated topology optimization demonstrated comparable or better stability by limited displacement and reduced localized deformation related to the risk of subsidence. Less shielding of newly formed bone was predicted inside the new designed cage. Using the present approach, it is also possible to tailor cage design for specific materials, either titanium or polymer, that can attain the desired balance between stability, reduced stress shielding, and porosity for biofactor delivery.