Empowerment and health care access barriers among currently married women in Myanmar.

BACKGROUND: Although Myanmar is moving to attain UHC in 2030, health care utilization indicators are still low, especially among women. Women's health outcomes are determined by the lack of access to health care, and many factors influence this condition. The objective of the present work was to identify the association between women's empowerment and barriers to accessing health care among currently married women in Myanmar. METHOD: We performed a secondary analysis using the Myanmar Demographic and Health Survey (2015-16), including 7759 currently married women aged 15-49 years. The outcome variable, barriers to accessing health care, were asked about in terms of whether the respondent faced barriers to getting permission to go, getting money to go, the distance to the health facility, and not wanting to go alone. The variables were recoded into zero, one, and more than one barrier. After performing the exploratory factor analysis for women's empowerment indicators (decision-making power and disagreement to justification to wife-beating), a multinomial logistic regression was carried out. RESULTS: Among currently married women, 48% experienced no barriers when accessing health care services, 21.9% had one barrier, and 30.1% had more than one barrier. After the exploratory factor analysis, scores were recoded into three levels. Women with low and middle empowerment had 1.5 odds (AOR 1.5, 95% CI: 1.2-1.8) and 1.5 odds (AOR 1.5, 95% CI: 1.3-1.9), respectively, to have barriers to accessing health care when compared to those with high empowerment for one barrier group. For the women who had more than one barrier, women with low empowerment were 1.4 times more likely (AOR 1.4, 95% CI: 1.1-1.7) to experience barriers in comparison to women with high empowerment. The barriers were seen to be reduced in the case of women who had a high level of education, had fewer children, came from rich households, and lived in urban areas. CONCLUSION: When women are more empowered, they tend to face fewer barriers when accessing health care services. This finding could contribute to the policy formulation for reducing health inequity issues by increasing women's empowerment.

Prevalence of alcohol consumption and its risk factors among university students: A cross-sectional study across six universities in Myanmar.

BACKGROUND: Globally, alcohol consumption is a significant public health concern and it is one of the most important risk behaviours among university students. Alcohol consumption can lead to poor academic performance, injuries, fights, use of other substances, and risky sexual behaviours among students. However, the study explored the prevalence of alcohol consumption and the associated risk factors among university students since these have not been fully examined in previous research. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the prevalence of alcohol consumption and the associated risk factors among university students in Myanmar. METHODS: The present cross-sectional study was conducted using a sample of 15-24-year-old university students who were selected from six universities in Mandalay, Myanmar, in August 2018. In total, 3,456 students (males: 1,301 and females: 2,155) were recruited and asked to respond to a self-administered questionnaire. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) for alcohol consumption among university students. RESULTS: The prevalence of alcohol consumption in the previous 30 days was 20.3% (males: 36.0%, females: 10.8%). The alcohol consumption was significantly higher among males (AOR = 2.3, 95% CI; 1.9-2.9), truant students (AOR = 2.1, 95% CI; 1.3-3.3), smokers (AOR = 7.0, 95% CI; 5.1-9.7), students who reported feeling of hopelessness or sadness (AOR = 1.4, 95% CI; 1.2-1.8), peers' alcohol consumption (AOR = 7.5, 95% CI; 4.8-11.7). CONCLUSION: The present study revealed that males, smokers, peer alcohol consumption, and truant students had higher odds of alcohol consumption among the students. Therefore, effective campus-based counselling, peer education, and national surveillance systems that can monitor risky drinking behaviours among university students should be implemented. Further, government regulations that control the production, sale, promotion, advertising, and restriction of alcohol should be well developed and strengthened, as in the case of other Southeast Asian countries.

Healthcare in Myanmar.

Myanmar transitioned to a civilian government in March, 2011. Although the democratic process has accelerated since then, many problems in the field of healthcare still exist. Since there is a limited overview on the healthcare in Myanmar, this article briefly describes the current states surrounding health services in Myanmar. According to the Census 2014, the population in the Republic of the Union of Myanmar was 51,410,000. The crude birth rate in the previous one year was estimated to be 18.9 per 1,000, giving the annual population growth rate of 0.89% between 2003 and 2014. The Ministry of Health reorganized into six departments. National non-governmental organizations and community-based organizations support healthcare, as well as international non-governmental organizations. Since hospital statistics by the government cover only public facilities, the information on private facilities is limited. Although there were not enough medical doctors (61 per 100,000 population), the number of medical students was reduced from 2,400 to 1,200 in 2012 to ensure the quality of medical education. The information on causes of death in the general population could not be retrieved, but some data was available from hospital statistics. Although the improvement was marked, the figures did not reach the levels set by Millennium Development Goals 4 and 5. A trial prepaid health insurance system started in July 2015, to be followed by evaluation one year later. There are many international donors, including the Japan International Cooperation Agency, supporting health in Myanmar. With these efforts and support, a marked progress is expected in the field of healthcare.