ABSTRACT
Bovine casein is a major allergen present in cow milk to induce anaphylaxis. In this study, the potential allergenicity of enzymatically hydrolyzed casein (HC) was evaluated based on in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that Alcalase and Protamex treatment (AT, PT) reduced the potential allergenicity of CN, with the greatest reductions of 68.25% and 50.75%, respectively. In addition, in vivo results showed that HC effectively alleviated allergic response symptoms of Balb/c mice; a significant tendency toward decreased serum IgG1 and mast cell tryptase levels was observed, accompanied by a decrease of Th2-associated IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 and an increase of IFN-γ levels in spleen. Moreover, the inflammation of the lung, jejunum, and ileum was remarkably ameliorated. The findings indicated that HC induced a shift toward Th1 response and maintained the Th1/Th2 immune balance. Importantly, our results provide the basis for the production of hypoallergenic dairy products.
Subject(s)
Allergens , Caseins , Mice, Inbred BALB C , Th2 Cells , Animals , Mice , Caseins/immunology , Allergens/immunology , Female , Th2 Cells/immunology , Hydrolysis , Immunoglobulin G/blood , Disease Models, Animal , Cattle , Spleen/immunology , Milk Hypersensitivity/immunology , Interferon-gamma/metabolism , Th1 Cells/immunology , Interleukin-4/metabolism , Tryptases/metabolism , Cytokines/metabolism , Jejunum/immunology , Milk/immunology , Milk/chemistry , Interleukin-13/immunology , Interleukin-13/metabolism , Anaphylaxis/immunology , Anaphylaxis/chemically induced , Anaphylaxis/prevention & control , Interleukin-5/immunologyABSTRACT
Extracellular ATP is a potent signaling molecule released from various cells throughout the body and is intimately involved in the pathophysiological functions of the nervous system and immune system by activating P2 purinergic receptors. Recent increasingly studies showed that extracellular ATP exhibits circadian oscillation with an approximately 24-h periodicity, which participates in regulatory pathways of central oscillator suprachiasmatic nucleus and peripheral oscillator bladder, respectively. Oscillators modulate the protein expression of ATP release channels and ectonucleotidase activity through clock genes; indeed, real-time alterations of ATP release and degradation determine outcomes of temporal character on extracellular ATP rhythm. The regulatory pathways on extracellular ATP rhythm are different in central and peripheral systems. In this review, we summarize the circadian rhythm of extracellular ATP and discuss several circadian regulatory pathways in different organs via ATP release and degradation, to provide a new understanding for purinergic signaling in the regulatory mechanism of circadian rhythm and a potential target to research the circadian regulation of extracellular ATP in other circadian oscillators.
