ABSTRACT
SUMOylation, which is a type of post-translational modification that involves covalent conjugation of small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) proteins to target substrates, regulates various important molecular and cellular processes, including transcription, the cell cycle, cell signaling, and DNA synthesis and repair. Newly synthesized SUMO is immature and cleaved by the SUMO-specific protease family, resulting in exposure of the C-terminal Gly-Gly motif to become the mature form. In the presence of ATP, mature SUMO is conjugated with the activating enzyme E1 through the cysteine residue of E1, followed by transfer to the cysteine residue of E2-conjugating enzyme Ubc9 in humans that recognizes and modifies the lysine residue of a substrate protein. E3 SUMO ligases promote SUMOylation. SUMOylation is a reversible modification and mediated by SUMO-specific proteases. Cumulative studies have indicated that SUMOylation affects the functions of protein substrates in various manners, including cellular localization and protein stability. Gene knockout studies in mice have revealed that several SUMO cycling machinery proteins are crucial for the development and differentiation of various cell lineages, including immune cells. Aberrant SUMOylation has been implicated in several types of diseases, including cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune diseases. This review summarizes the biochemistry of SUMO modification and the general biological functions of proteins involved in SUMOylation. In particular, this review focuses on the molecular mechanisms by which SUMOylation regulates the development, maturation, and functions of immune cells, including T, B, dendritic, and myeloid cells. This review also discusses the underlying relevance of disruption of SUMO cycling and site-specific interruption of SUMOylation on target proteins in immune cells in diseases, including cancers and infectious diseases.
Subject(s)
Neoplasms , Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzymes , Humans , Animals , Mice , Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzymes/genetics , Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzymes/metabolism , Small Ubiquitin-Related Modifier Proteins/genetics , Small Ubiquitin-Related Modifier Proteins/metabolism , Sumoylation , Cysteine/genetics , Ubiquitins/metabolism , Ubiquitin/metabolism , Neoplasms/geneticsABSTRACT
This study reports a CMOS-MEMS condenser microphone implemented using the standard thin film stacking of 0.35 µm UMC CMOS 3.3/5.0 V logic process, and followed by post-CMOS micromachining steps without introducing any special materials. The corrugated diaphragm for the microphone is designed and implemented using the metal layer to reduce the influence of thin film residual stresses. Moreover, a silicon substrate is employed to increase the stiffness of the back-plate. Measurements show the sensitivity of microphone is -42 ± 3 dBV/Pa at 1 kHz (the reference sound-level is 94 dB) under 6 V pumping voltage, the frequency response is 100 Hz-10 kHz, and the S/N ratio >55 dB. It also has low power consumption of less than 200 µA, and low distortion of less than 1% (referred to 100 dB).
