ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To determine the association of single-nucleotide polymorphism8nrg433E1006 in the neuregulin-1 gene associated with schizophrenia. METHODS: This case-control study was conducted at the Fountain House, Lahore, and the psychiatric clinics at the Aga Khan University, Karachi, from 2010 to 2013.The total genomic deoxyribonucleic acid was isolated and single-nucleotide polymorphism8nrg433E1006 was screened by nested polymerase chain reaction followed by sequencing. These sequences, from patients and controls, were aligned with the human neuregulin-1-glial growth factor 2 gene sequence, which served as a reference sequence. The single nucleotide polymorphism genetic algorithm was characterised at position 433 in the neuregulin-1 gene by aligning test and control sequences with the neuregulin-1-glial growth factor 2reference sequence using ClustalW algorithm, implemented in the BioEdit software. RESULTS: Of the 630 samples, 321(51%) were of cases and 309(49%)of controls. Moreover, 99(30.8%) cases and 79(25.6%) controls rendered correct neuregulin-1 gene frames. Of them, the single-nucleotide polymorphism8nrg433E1006 was present in 62(62.6%) cases and 24(30.4%) controls. The analysis showed that the odds ratio of having schizophrenia is 3.8 times higher in the presence of this single-nucleotide polymorphism at the 92 bp of neuregulin-1 gene with the 95% confidence interval(p=0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: There was a strong association of single-nucleotide polymorphism8nrg433E1006 in the neuregulin-1 gene with schizophrenia.
Subject(s)
Genetic Predisposition to Disease , Neuregulin-1/genetics , Schizophrenia/genetics , Adolescent , Adult , Aged , Case-Control Studies , Child , Female , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Pakistan , Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide , Young AdultABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To determine the prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia in the pathways to help-seeking. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. PLACE AND DURATION OF STUDY: The Department of Psychiatry, the Aga Khan University, Karachi, from 2008 to 2009. METHODOLOGY: A total of 93 patients were interviewed in the pathways to care of schizophrenia. The diagnosis was based on ICD-10 criteria. The pathways to care were assessed through a semi-structured questionnaire. The onset, course and symptoms of psychosis were assessed through Interview for Retrospective Assessment at Age at Onset of Psychosis (IROAS). RESULTS: Fifty five (59%) participants were male while 41% (n=38%) were female. Using IROAS, 108 symptoms were identified as concerning behaviour. Alternatively, 60 (55%) concerning behaviours were reported in the open-ended inquiry of the reasons for help seeking as assessed by the pathways to care questionnaire with a statistically significant difference between most symptoms category. The difference was most pronounced (p < 0.001) for depressed mood (66%), worries (65%), tension (63%), withdrawal/mistrust (54%) and loss of self-confidence (53%). Thought withdrawal (22%) and passivity (15%) were elicited only through structured interview (IROAS). When symptoms were categorized together, about 83% of the subjects presented with affective and non-specific prodromal symptoms. Roughly, 10% of the subjects presented with positive symptoms and 3% presented with the negative symptoms of psychosis. The non-specific, affective symptoms appear to predominate the prodromal phase of the illness. CONCLUSION: Prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia include non-specific, affective symptoms. Attention needs to be paid on identifying the prodromal symptoms and change in social functioning in order to identify those who are at risk of longterm psychosis.
Subject(s)
Patient Acceptance of Health Care , Psychotic Disorders/diagnosis , Schizophrenia/diagnosis , Adult , Age of Onset , Community Mental Health Services , Cross-Sectional Studies , Delivery of Health Care , Female , Humans , Interviews as Topic , Male , Middle Aged , Psychiatric Status Rating Scales , Psychotic Disorders/psychology , Retrospective Studies , Schizophrenic Psychology , Socioeconomic Factors , Surveys and Questionnaires , Time FactorsABSTRACT
Suicide bombing is a very complex phenomenon. It has been a focus of research in recent times. However inherent biases of researchers muddle the picture: researchers from western countries focus the issue around political liberty and notion of democracy, while those from Islamic countries tend to take the afterlife-reward notion as an incentive for suicide bombing. However in order to understand this complex phenomenon it is important to consider the contextual factors. In this review we have attempted to highlight various geopolitical factors which contribute to increased incidence of suicide bombing in South East Asia.
