Diesel Aerosols in an Underground Coal Mine.

The case study was conducted in an underground coal mine to characterize submicron aerosols at a continuous miner (CM) section, assess the concentrations of diesel aerosols at the longwall (LW) section, and assess the exposures of selected occupations to elemental carbon (EC) and total carbon (TC). The results show that aerosols at the CM sections were a mixture of aerosols freshly generated at the outby portion of the CM section and those generated in the main drifts that supply "fresh air" to the section. The relatively low ambient concentrations and personal exposures of selected occupations suggest that currently applied control strategies and technologies are relatively effective in curtailing exposures to diesel aerosols. Further reductions in EC and TC concentrations and personal exposures to those would be possible by more effective curtailment of emissions from high-emitting light duty (LD) vehicles.

Size Separation of Amosite by Filtration and Shaking Methods.

The objectives of this study are (1) to separate fibrous grunerite (amosite) by its length using filtration and shaking techniques utilized in a previous study and (2) to create two distinct length groups (short and long) of the amosite with higher output in a cost-effective way. The shaking system included an electrodynamic exciter, a linear power amplifier, and an audio-frequency signal generator and was attached to a cowl sampler as a funnel loaded with a polycarbonate filter. A suspension of amosite was passed through the 10-µm pore size polycarbonate filter in the shaking system and was transferred to a filtration system through five different pore sizes of polycarbonate membrane filters in series from the top: 10-, 5-, 2-, 1-, and 0.2-µm pore sizes. Each polycarbonate filter was tightly clamped with two conductive 25-mm spacers with a 25-mm stainless steel support screen to prevent leakage. The amosite length and diameter were manually measured with images from a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM). A sequence of fields was selected at random locations, and an image of each field was acquired. The length and width of approximately 500 fibers for each sample were measured with ImageJ software. Two significantly different length groups (short and long) of amosite were collected (p <0.05). Approximately 95% of separated amosite (n = 499) using the filtration system were shorter than 5 µm (short fiber group), and approximately 80% of separated amosite (n = 503) using the shaking system were longer than 5 µm (long fiber group).

Retrofitting and re-powering as a control strategies for curtailment of exposure of underground miners to diesel aerosols.

A study was conducted to examine the potential of diesel emissions control strategies based on retrofitting existing power packages with exhaust aftertreatment devices and repowering with advanced power packages. The retrofit systems, a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and diesel particulate filter (DPF), were evaluated individually using a US EPA tier 2 (ter 2) engine operated under four steady-state conditions and one transient cycle. The DOC effectively curtailed emissions of CO, and to some extent organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), and aerosol number concentration. The DPF system offered substantially higher reductions in OC and EC mass and aerosol number concentrations. Both, the DOC and DPF achieved reductions in the aforementioned emissions without adversely affecting emissions of NO2 and nano-sized aerosols. The strategy of repowering with an advanced system was examined using a US EPA tier 4 final (tier 4f) engine equipped with a cooled exhaust gas recirculation system and diesel exhaust fluid-based selective catalytic reduction system, but not with a DPF system. The tier 4f engine contributed substantially less than the tier 2 engine to the EC and OC mass, aerosol number, and CO, NO, and NO2 concentrations. The tier 4f engine was very effective in reducing aerosol mass, NO, and NO2 concentrations, but it was not equally effective in reducing aerosol number concentrations. The implementation of viable exhaust after treatment systems and advanced diesel power packages could be instrumental to the underground mining industry to secure a clean, economical, and dependable source of power for mobile equipment.

Contribution of various types and categories of diesel-powered vehicles to aerosols in an underground mine.

A study was conducted in an underground mine with the objective to assess relative contributions of different types and categories of diesel-powered vehicles to submicron aerosol concentrations and to assess the effectiveness of selected diesel particulate matter control strategies and technologies. The net contributions of each of six heavy-duty (HD) vehicles, five light-duty (LD) vehicles, and the effects of disposable filter elements (DFEs), a sintered metal filter (SMF) system, and repowering were assessed using isolated zone methodology. On average, the HD vehicles powered by engines that were not retrofitted with filtration systems contributed approximately three times more to the number of aerosols and six times more to elemental carbon (EC) mass concentrations than LD vehicles powered by engines that were not retrofitted with filtration systems. Replacing an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) pre-Tier engine in the non-permissible HD vehicle with an EPA Tier 3 engine resulted in 63% lower EC concentrations and 41% lower aerosol number concentrations. The evaluated filtration system with DFEs reduced the contribution of diesel-powered vehicles to number concentrations of aerosols by 77 to 92% and the average EC concentrations by 95%. The SMF reduced the contribution of diesel-powered vehicles to number concentrations of aerosols and EC concentrations by 93 and 95%, respectively. When compared with older units, one of the newer model personnel carriers contributed noticeably less to EC mass concentrations but almost equally to the number concentrations of diesel aerosols in the mine air. The second newer type of alternative personnel carrier vehicle contributed more to number and EC mass concentrations than the old-style personnel carrier. The LD vehicle powered by an EPA Tier 4f engine equipped with a DPF system contributed least of all tested vehicles to aerosol number and EC mass concentrations. This information is critical to the efforts of the underground mining industry to reduce exposures of workers to diesel aerosols.

Characterization of Aerosols in an Underground Mine during a Longwall Move.

A study was conducted in an underground mine with the objective to identify, characterize, and source apportion airborne aerosols at the setup face and recovery room during longwall move operations. The focus was on contributions of diesel- and battery-powered heavy-duty vehicles used to transfer equipment between the depleted and new longwall panels and diesel-powered light-duty vehicles used to transport personnel and materials to various locations within the mine. Aerosols at the setup face were found to be distributed among diesel combustion-generated submicrometer and mechanically generated coarse aerosols. According to the data, the submicrometer aerosols downstream of the setup face were sourced to diesel exhaust emitted by vehicles operated inside and outside of the panel. Depending on the intensity of the activities on the panel, the outby sources contributed between 12.5 and 99.6% to the average elemental carbon mass flow at the setup face and recovery room. Extensively used light-duty vehicles contributed measurably to the elemental carbon concentrations at the setup face. The number concentrations of aerosols downstream of the setup face were associated with aerosols generated by combustion in diesel engines operated in the shield haulage loop and/or outside of the longwall panels. Entrainment of road dust by diesel or battery-powered load-haul-dump vehicles operated near the measurement site appears to be the primary source of mass concentrations of aerosols. The findings of this study should help the underground mining industry in its efforts to reduce exposures of miners to diesel and coarse aerosols.

Diesel and welding aerosols in an underground mine.

Researchers from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducted a study in an isolated zone of an underground mine to characterize aerosols generated by: (1) a diesel-powered personnel carrier vehicle operated over a simulated light-duty cycle and (2) the simulated repair of existing equipment using manual metal arc welding (MMAW). Both the diesel-powered vehicle and MMAW process contributed to concentrations of nano and ultrafine aerosols in the mine air. The welding process also contributed to aerosols with electrical mobility and aerodynamic mobility count median diameters of approximately 140 and 480 nm, respectively. The welding particles collected on the filters contained carbon, iron, manganese, calcium, and aluminum.

Respirable size-selective sampler for end-of-shift quartz measurement: Development and performance.

Aims of this study were to develop a respirable size-selective sampler for direct-on-filter (DoF) quartz measurement at the end-of-shift (EoS) using a portable Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer and to determine its size-selective sampling performance. A new miniaturized sampler has been designed to have an effective particle deposition diameter close to the portable FTIR beam diameter (6 mm). The new sampler (named the EoS cyclone) was constructed using a 3D printer. The sampling efficiency of the EoS cyclone was determined using polydisperse glass sphere particles and a time-of-flight direct reading instrument. Respirable dust mass concentration and quartz absorbance levels of samples collected with the EoS cyclone were compared to those collected with the 10-mm nylon cyclone. The EoS cyclone operated at a flow rate of 1.2 l min-1 showed minimum bias compared to the international standard respirable convention. The use of the EoS cyclone induced respirable dust mass concentration results similar but significantly larger (5%) than those obtained from samples collected with 10-mm nylon cyclones. The sensitivity of the DoF-FTIR analysis in estimating quartz was found increased more than 10 times when the samples were collected with the EoS cyclone. The average particle deposition diameter was 8.8 mm in 60 samples. The newly developed user friendly EoS cyclone may provide a better sampling strategy in quartz exposure assessment with faster feedback.

Effects of hydrotreated vegetable oil on emissions of aerosols and gases from light-duty and medium-duty older technology engines.

This study was conducted to assess the potential of hydrotreated vegetable oil renewable diesel (HVORD) as a control strategy to reduce exposure of workers to diesel aerosols and gases. The effects of HVORD on criteria aerosol and gaseous emissions were compared with those of ultralow sulfur diesel (ULSD). The results of comprehensive testing at four steady-state conditions and one transient cycle were used to characterize the aerosol and gaseous emissions from two older technology engines: (1) a naturally aspirated mechanically controlled and (2) a turbocharged electronically controlled engine. Both engines were equipped with diesel oxidation catalytic converters (DOCs). For all test conditions, both engines emitted measurably lower total mass concentrations of diesel aerosols, total carbon, and elemental carbon when HVORD was used in place of ULSD. For all test conditions, the reductions in total mass concentrations were more substantial for the naturally aspirated than for the turbocharged engine. In the case of the naturally aspirated engine, HVORD also favorably affected total surface area of aerosols deposited in the alveolar region of human lungs (TSAADAR) and the total number concentrations of aerosols. In the case of the turbocharged electronically controlled engine, for some of the test conditions HVORD adversely affected the TSAADAR and total number concentrations of aerosols. In the majority of the test cases involving the naturally aspirated mechanically controlled engine, HVORD favorably affected carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and nitric oxide (NO) concentrations, but adversely affected NO2 and total hydrocarbon concentrations, while the effects of the fuels on carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations were masked by the effects of DOC. In the case of the turbocharged electronically controlled engine, the CO2, CO, NOX, NO, and total hydrocarbon concentrations were generally lower when HVORD was used in place of ULSD. The effects of the fuels on NO2 concentrations were masked by the more prominent effects of DOC.

Emissions from a Diesel Engine using Fe-based Fuel Additives and a Sintered Metal Filtration System.

A series of laboratory tests were conducted to assess the effects of Fe-containing fuel additives on aerosols emitted by a diesel engine retrofitted with a sintered metal filter (SMF) system. Emission measurements performed upstream and downstream of the SMF system were compared, for cases when the engine was fueled with neat ultralow sulfur diesel (ULSD) and with ULSD treated with two formulations of additives containing Fe-based catalysts. The effects were assessed for four steady-state engine operating conditions and one transient cycle. The results showed that the SMF system reduced the average total number and surface area concentrations of aerosols by more than 100-fold. The total mass and elemental carbon results confirmed that the SMF system was indeed very effective in the removal of diesel aerosols. When added at the recommended concentrations (30 p.p.m. of iron), the tested additives had minor adverse impacts on the number, surface area, and mass concentrations of filter-out (FOut) aerosols. For one of the test cases, the additives may have contributed to measurable concentrations of engine-out (EOut) nucleation mode aerosols. The additives had only a minor impact on the concentration and size distribution of volatile and semi-volatile FOut aerosols. Metal analysis showed that the introduction of Fe with the additives substantially increased Fe concentration in the EOut, but the SMF system was effective in removal of Fe-containing aerosols. The FOut Fe concentrations for all three tested fuels were found to be much lower than the corresponding EOut Fe concentrations for the case of untreated ULSD fuel. The results support recommendations that these additives should not be used in diesel engines unless they are equipped with exhaust filtration systems. Since the tested SMF system was found to be very efficient in removing Fe introduced by the additives, the use of these additives should not result in a measurable increase in emissions of de novo generated Fe-containing aerosols. The findings from this study should promote a better understanding of the benefits and challenges of using sintered metal systems and fuel additives to control the exposure of underground miners and other workers to diesel aerosols and gases.

Aerosols and criteria gases in an underground mine that uses FAME biodiesel blends.

The contribution of heavy-duty haulage trucks to the concentrations of aerosols and criteria gases in underground mine air and the physical properties of those aerosols were assessed for three fuel blends made with fatty acid methyl esters biodiesel and petroleum-based ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD). The contributions of blends with 20, 50, and 57% of biodiesel as well as neat ULSD were assessed using a 30-ton truck operated over a simulated production cycle in an isolated zone of an operating underground metal mine. When fueled with the B20 (blend of biodiesel with ULSD with 20% of biodiesel content), B50 (blend of biodiesel with ULSD with 50% of biodiesel content), and B57 (blend of biodiesel with ULSD with 57% of biodiesel content) blends in place of ULSD, the truck's contribution to mass concentrations of elemental and total carbon was reduced by 20, 50, and 61%, respectively. Size distribution measurements showed that the aerosols produced by the engine fueled with these blends were characterized by smaller median electrical mobility diameter and lower peak concentrations than the aerosols produced by the same engine fueled with ULSD. The use of the blends resulted in number concentrations of aerosols that were 13-29% lower than those when ULSD was used. Depending on the content of biodiesel in the blends, the average reductions in the surface area concentrations of aerosol which could be deposited in the alveolar region of the lung (as measured by a nanoparticle surface area monitor) ranged between 6 and 37%. The use of blends also resulted in slight but measurable reductions in CO emissions, as well as an increase in NOX emissions. All of the above changes in concentrations and physical properties were found to be correlated with the proportion of biodiesel in the blends.

Biodiesel versus diesel exposure: enhanced pulmonary inflammation, oxidative stress, and differential morphological changes in the mouse lung.

The use of biodiesel (BD) or its blends with petroleum diesel (D) is considered to be a viable approach to reduce occupational and environmental exposures to particulate matter (PM). Due to its lower particulate mass emissions compared to D, use of BD is thought to alleviate adverse health effects. Considering BD fuel is mainly composed of unsaturated fatty acids, we hypothesize that BD exhaust particles could induce pronounced adverse outcomes, due to their ability to readily oxidize. The main objective of this study was to compare the effects of particles generated by engine fueled with neat BD and neat petroleum-based D. Biomarkers of tissue damage and inflammation were significantly elevated in lungs of mice exposed to BD particulates. Additionally, BD particulates caused a significant accumulation of oxidatively modified proteins and an increase in 4-hydroxynonenal. The up-regulation of inflammatory cytokines/chemokines/growth factors was higher in lungs upon BD particulate exposure. Histological evaluation of lung sections indicated presence of lymphocytic infiltrate and impaired clearance with prolonged retention of BD particulate in pigment laden macrophages. Taken together, these results clearly indicate that BD exhaust particles could exert more toxic effects compared to D.

Aerosols emitted in underground mine air by diesel engine fueled with biodiesel.

Using biodiesel in place of petroleum diesel is considered by several underground metal and nonmetal mine operators to be a viable strategy for reducing the exposure of miners to diesel particulate matter. This study was conducted in an underground experimental mine to evaluate the effects of soy methyl ester biodiesel on the concentrations and size distributions of diesel aerosols and nitric oxides in mine air. The objective was to compare the effects of neat and blended biodiesel fuels with those of ultralow sulfur petroleum diesel. The evaluation was performed using a mechanically controlled, naturally aspirated diesel engine equipped with a muffler and a diesel oxidation catalyst. The effects of biodiesel fuels on size distributions and number and total aerosol mass concentrations were found to be strongly dependent on engine operating conditions. When fueled with biodiesel fuels, the engine contributed less to elemental carbon concentrations for all engine operating modes and exhaust configurations. The substantial increases in number concentrations and fraction of organic carbon (OC) in total carbon over the baseline were observed when the engine was fueled with biodiesel fuels and operated at light-load operating conditions. Size distributions for all test conditions were found to be single modal and strongly affected by engine operating conditions, fuel type, and exhaust configuration. The peak and total number concentrations as well as median diameter decreased with an increase in the fraction of biodiesel in the fuels, particularly for high-load operating conditions. The effects of the diesel oxidation catalyst, commonly deployed to counteract the potential increase in OC emissions due to use of biodiesel, were found to vary depending upon fuel formulation and engine operating conditions. The catalyst was relatively effective in reducing aerosol number and mass concentrations, particularly at light-load conditions, but also showed the potential for an increase in nitrogen dioxide concentrations at high-load modes.