The effect of the Hurnik-Morris (HM) system on sow reproduction, attrition, and longevity.

Sows were randomly selected and assigned to either the Hurnik-Morris system (HM; n = 59) or a conventional gestation crate system (GC; n = 90) before breeding. The HM system provides housing for sows in small groups. All sows were bred to Duroc x Hampshire commercial boars. A common farrowing barn with 18 farrowing crates was used for the HM and GC sows. The HM sows had less (P<.001) backfat at farrowing. Average parity per sow (P<.046), lifetime number of pigs born per sow (P<.02), lifetime number of pigs born alive per sow (P<.02), and lifetime number weaned per sow (P<.045) were higher for sows housed in the HM system. The total number of sows removed from the GC system was higher (P<.025) than the number leaving the HM system. The higher parity level and lifetime production exhibited by the sows in the HM system indicates that this system supports greater longevity and may reflect the superior effect that this housing system has on animal well-being.

A thermal threshold assay to measure the nociceptive response to morphine sulphate in cattle.

A thermal threshold measurer (TTM) apparatus was developed and tested in 12 dry, nonpregnant, culled cows with the purpose of measuring the thermal nociceptive threshold and of finding the response to morphine sulphate dosages. The cows received a cumulative dose (from 0.00 to 0.40 mg/kg BW) of morphine sulphate through a catheter in the jugular vein. The interval between doses was 20 min, and a nociceptive test was performed 15 min after each injection. The TTM device consisted of a 60 W halogen bulb mounted in a 15 cm PVC tube, with a 0.6 s response time probe attached to its end, connected to a thermocouple. The probe measured the response temperature on the skin over the middle phalanges on the dorsum of the forefoot. The radiating heat stimulus from the bulb was instantaneously terminated with the foot-lift response of the tested animal. The nociceptive response to the 0.00 mg/kg dose was considered the baseline and subsequent measurements were expressed in difference from it. Data were evaluated in a regression analysis using the GLM procedure. A significant elevation (P < 0.0001) in the nociceptive threshold of the cows with cumulative dosing of morphine sulphate was noticed. A high variability (P < 0.0001) in the response among animals was also detected, suggesting that a 2-step dose of morphine sulphate is necessary to achieve a certain degree of induced analgesia in all cows. The nociceptive assay described, using the TTM device, was able to detect an elevation of the thermal threshold of cows due to morphine sulphate induced analgesia. An increase in locomotory behaviour or other side effects due to morphine sulphate were not noticed.

Behavioral pattern of dairy cows milked in a two-stall automatic milking system with a holding area.

Behavioral pattern was investigated in dairy cows milked in an automatic milking system (AMS) in contrast to cows milked in a conventional milking parlor. Forty-eight Holstein cows were allocated to two groups of 24 animals. The two groups were housed in adjacent free stall pens. Both groups were milked twice a day at 0500 and at 1500 for 30 d before commencement of the experiment, one in a two-stall AMS (AMS Group), the other in a 16-stall herringbone parlor (Parlor Group). The respective holding areas were used to encourage cows to enter the milking compartments. All cows consumed total mixed rations ad libitum, provided once a day between 0500 and 0600 in indoor feed bunks. Cows in both groups were allowed daily access to two adjacent outdoor paddocks from 1030 to 1230. Behavioral observations were carried out in the free stall barn from 0400 to 0900 and from 1250 to 1900 for 30 d. The number of cows lying down, standing in the stalls, standing in the passageway, and eating was recorded every 10 min. Analyses of variance were used to compare time serial changes in behavioral states between groups. Although the time serial changes in the behavioral states were not different between groups after returning from paddocks, they became significantly different between groups for all four recorded behavioral states after the onset of milking. Ethograms during the 11-h observation period showed that cows in the AMS group spent less time eating at the feed bunk and standing in the stalls to compensate for the longer time standing in the holding area. The results indicate that AMS milking with a holding area affects social synchronization of cows eating and resting and reduces time spent eating significantly more than parlor milking.

The effect of the Hurnik-Morris (HM) system on sow locomotion, skin integrity, and litter health.

Gilts (n = 187) were randomly assigned to either the Hurnik-Morris housing system (HM) or a conventional gestation crate system (GC) prior to breeding. The Hurnik-Morris system provides housing for sows in small groups. Gilts were synchronized for estrus and bred to Duroc Hampshire commercial crossbred boars. Gilts were reared in their respective housing systems through their gestation period. Housing system during breeding and gestation of sows did not affect their respective piglet mortality and piglet viability levels. The slightly higher feet and leg problem scores for the HM sows at weaning may indicate a necessity for farrowing accommodation that will allow movement of sows during lactation.

The effect of amniotic fluid ingestion on the nociception of cows.

The effect of the ingestion of the afterbirth on the nociception of cows was studied in two experiments. In both trials, the dependent variable was the thermal threshold of the animal, recorded as temperature and measured using nociceptive tests (NT). In the first experiment, 32 animals were randomly distributed in a 2 x 2 factorial design. The drug factor was an intravenous injection of morphine sulfate or of a saline solution. The fluid factor was the orogastric infusion of amniotic fluid or water. A pretreatment NT was considered as a baseline. Other NTs were performed after the drug injection and after the fluid infusion. In the second experiment, 28 multiparous Holstein cows were randomly assigned to 2 x 2 factorial treatments. The factors were amniotic fluid, either removed or not from the calves' surface immediately after delivery; and placenta, either left available or removed. A NT was performed before and 1, 6 and 36 h after the calf's delivery. In experiment 1, the morphine dose used did not produce an increase of the thermal threshold (p > 0.17) and neither did the amniotic fluid on the morphine-treated cows (p > 0.83). However, the amniotic fluid had an effect (p < 0.04) on the group injected with saline solution. In experiment 2, a linear rise occurred (p < 0.001) in the pain tolerance of the cows as parturition approached. Placenta ingestion and placenta and amniotic fluid ingestion had no effect (p < 0.26) on the thermal threshold of the cows. However, cows ingesting amniotic fluid had a significantly higher thermal threshold in the 1-h test than in the 6-h and 36-h tests (p < 0.004). The nociception of the cows not receiving amniotic fluid did not change across the same periods (p > 0.587). The results indicate that the ingestion of amniotic fluid enhances the ongoing opioid-mediated analgesia at parturition in bovines.

The long-term productivity of hens housed in battery cages and an aviary.

This study examined the long-term effects of housing system on several aspects of laying hen production. At 19 wks of age, 336 White Leghorn hens were placed, 3 birds per cage, into battery cages; 437 birds were assigned to an aviary with communal nests, ambulation areas, and three raised tiers with feeders and drinkers. Family groups were split between the two housing systems. The hens were housed in such a manner for over 3 yr (until the end of the 168th wk of age), with forced molts between 66 and 74 and between 119 and 125 wk of age. Feed consumption and conversion, egg weight, eggshell deformation, and hen-day productivity were assessed monthly in both systems. Although feed consumption and conversion tended to be higher in the aviary throughout the study, these variables differed significantly due to housing system only in Year 2 (P = 0.04). There were no differences in egg weight (P = 0.7), eggshell deformation (P = 0.85), egg cracking during shaking (P = 0.34), total hen-day productivity (P = 0.55), or egg mass produced per hen per month (P = 0.4). Although aviary systems have been criticized for egg losses due to floor laying, only 2.5% of eggs in the current study were laid on the floor in Year 1, and 0.3% in Years 2 and 3; 1.7% across all years. Hen mortality was variable across production and molt periods, and did not differ due to housing system (P > 0.05). The results of this study confirm that hen productivity in well-managed alternative housing systems can compare favorably with that in battery cages.

An ellipsoid farrowing crate: its ergonomical design and effects on pig productivity.

An ellipsoid farrowing crate was designed and compared to the conventional rectangular crate with regard to its effect on sows' production traits. The main features of this crate are its oval horizontal frame and bowed vertical bars. Thirty-two sows farrowed in each system. Those in the ellipsoid crates raised 318 pigs and those in the rectangular crates raised 304. Stillbirth rate was lower in the ellipsoid crates than in the rectangular crates (P < .05). Among pigs born live, no significant difference due to crate was found on the deaths by crushing, infection, and other causes. The overall pigs' weaning rate from total births was also similar in both crates (P > .05). The daily weight gains of pigs for the 1st wk in the ellipsoid crate did not differ from those of pigs in the rectangular crates (P > .05) but were higher for the period from d 7 to d 21 (P < .05). The ellipsoid crate allowed the sow to turn around and have more freedom to move. However, the increase in sow movement did not cause a higher pig crushing rate than that in the traditional crate (P > .05). Behavioral observations also showed that the ellipsoid farrowing crate permitted easier visual and tactile contact of dams with their pigs and offered pigs better access to the sow's teats.

The effect of long-term housing in an aviary and battery cages on the physical condition of laying hens: body weight, feather condition, claw length, foot lesions, and tibia strength.

The physical condition of laying hens housed for 3 yr in either traditional battery cages or an aviary was compared. Aviary hens were significantly lighter than those in cages (2,021 vs 2,241 g; P = .0001), despite having consumed slightly more feed (121 vs 116 g per bird per d, P = .16). Caged hens had poorer feather cover (P = .0001); 39% of caged birds had denuded areas greater than 5 cm2, whereas 68% of aviary hens had complete plumage. The length of both center front and rear claws was significantly greater in caged hens (36.3 vs 30.3 mm, P = .001 and 19.2 vs 16.1 mm, P = .012, respectively). The total number of foot lesions did not differ with housing system; however, caged hens had significantly more toe injuries (P < .001), and aviary birds had more injuries on the soles of their feet (P = .005). All aviary birds with foot lesions had only a single lesion, whereas one-sixth of caged hens with lesions had more than one. No difference in tibial breaking strength was found due to housing system. Overall, the results suggest that aviary systems can offer some distinct advantages over traditional battery cages with regard to the physical condition of laying hens, given a high level of management.

The behavior of gestating swine housed in the Hurnik-Morris system.

A group housing system for sows, the Hurnik-Morris (HM) system, was developed to address several of the perceived animal welfare limitations of existing housing methods. The HM system permits socially coordinated eating and resting, controlled and socially undisturbed feed intake, physical exercise, and regular exposure to boars. The HM system effectively uses and reinforces the behavioral phenomenon of the social synchronization of feeding and provides a less restrictive housing environment. The system provides housing for sows in small groups and an individual, non-competitive feeding environment using electronic feeding compartments. Gilts reared during gestation in the HM system were observed to spend less time lying in sternal recumbency (31 vs 21%; P = .004) and performing stereotypies (.10 vs .56%; P = .034) and to spend more time participating in social activities (1.4 vs .19%; P = .0007) than similar gilts kept in gestation crates (GC). The HM sows revealed a significantly longer latent period to postprandial lying than did GC gilts (64 vs 32 min; P = .0001). The order of gilt entry into the feeding compartments tended to be more consistent than the sequence of feeding compartments being entered (W = .57 vs .41; P = .06). This indicates that social factors seemed to be more important than spatial ones in determining the order of entry into the feeder compartments.

The performance of gilts in a new group housing system: endocrinological and immunological functions.

The effect of a new group housing system on performance (132 gilts and litters) and endocrinological (35 gilts) and immunological functions (28 gilts) was studied. Animals were randomly assigned to a conventional system (control), involving greater than 2 mo in individual stalls, or to the Hurnik-Morris (H-M) housing system, involving continuous housing in small groups, for breeding-gestating swine. The gilts were reared throughout gestation in their respective housing systems and moved 3 to 5 d prefarrowing to a common farrowing facility. Various production data were collected, including sow weight and backfat measurements, number of pigs born, number born alive, number weaned, litter birth weight, and litter weaning weight. An adrenal function test using dexamethasone pretreatment and ACTH1-24 challenge was imposed on gilts 5 d prebreeding and once between d 81 to 87 of gestation. Plasma progesterone was measured at the same time. Immune function was measured by serum antibody response to hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) and delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) to tuberculin. Gilts reared in the H-M housing system exhibited a number of pigs weaned per litter and litter weaning weights comparable to the number and weights in the control system (7.3 +/- .33 vs 6.9 +/- .38, P = .421 and 56.9 +/- 2.42 kg vs 51.3 +/- 2.76 kg, P = .132, respectively). Prefarrowing and weaning backfat measurements were significantly reduced in group-housed gilts (15.8 +/- .45 mm vs 17.8 +/- .55 mm, P = .005 and 14.6 +/- .4 mm vs 16.2 +/- .42 mm, P = .008, respectively).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Comparison of behavior and performance of laying hens housed in battery cages and an aviary.

Experiments were carried out to study the behavior and production performance of hens housed in battery cages (3 birds x 112 cages) and an aviary (437 birds). Direct visual observations and videotapings of hen behavior were collected at 24 to 25, 36 to 37, 49 to 50, and 61 to 62 wk of age. Production data were collected daily. Stereotyped behaviors were much more frequent (P less than .01) in the battery cages (7.0 to 24.7%) than in the aviary (1.0 to 2.7%). Comfort behaviors were performed by aviary birds (3.9 to 5.5%) much more frequently (P less than .01) than by the caged birds (.7 to .9%). The birds were more active during a few hours before dark and just after light in both cages and the aviary. In both groups, the production performance of hens was similar and relatively high. The results of the current study indicate that aviaries provide a more comfortable environment for birds and almost the same productivity per bird as battery cages.

Stereotypic behavior, adrenocortical function, and open field behavior of individually confined gestating sows.

The adrenocortical response and open field behavior of a random sample of 37 individually confined gestating sows in different parities were tested around day 85 of pregnancy. The sows were classified as stereotyped [S] and nonstereotyped [N] based on 8-h individual behavioral observations during daytime. Behavioral analysis from time-lapse video recordings included percentage of time spent standing and sitting, as well as the duration spent performing elements of stereotyped actions. Blood samples were drawn for cortisol analysis by suborbital sinus puncture before and after adrenocortical stimulation with 200 IU ACTH. Locomotor activity in an open field, isolated visually and auditorily from other sows, was also studied. Seventeen sows exhibited stereotyped behavior for 54.9 +/- 4.8% of the 8-h observation period during daytime. The total time the sows spent standing and sitting was positively correlated with age and was significantly higher for [S] sows than for [N] sows. Sows in the [S] group exhibited a higher adrenocortical response to ACTH stimulation than [N] sows. Mean locomotor scores in the open field were higher for [S] than for [N] sows but these did not correlate with the physical activity and adrenocortical function in the home crate. Our results provide no evidence that the performance of stereotypies constitutes a mechanism that helps sows to cope in an environment of low complexity.

The behavior of young layers during the first two weeks in aviary and battery cages.

Observations were collected from young layers housed in an aviary (437 birds) and in battery cages (8 out of 112 cages per day, 3 birds in each). Direct visual observations using scanning techniques were conducted for the first 2 wk, 2 h/day (1000 to 1200 h or 1300 to 1500 h on alternate days). In the aviary, a significant positive correlation was detected between the number of birds occupying the central part of the pen equipped with feeders and waterers, and number of birds engaged in eating and drinking (P less than .001). There were no significant differences between morning and afternoon in the numbers of birds located at each position of the aviary. However, comfort behaviors were more frequent in the afternoon. Feather pecking in the aviary was rare (less than .1%) and did not appear to be stereotypic. In the battery cages, feather pecking was more frequent (4.1%). Comfort behaviors in the cages were rare (.4%), and the range of activities was also limited. These results indicate that the aviary provides a more comfortable environment for the birds than cages, even when the cage housing density was lower than recommended for general commercial units.

Body surface area, a reference for space allowance in confinement.

One of the most important welfare concerns in relationship to poultry production is the restriction, both physical and social, imposed by close and long-lasting confinement. The bird's body-surface area was considered as a reference base for the determination of a minimum space allowance in the present study. The formula for surface area was based on body weight, which is a well-known and easily measured parameter. As the bird grows, its surface area changes in proportion to its weight gain, and, therefore, surface area provides a continuous estimate of the space requirement. The floor space allowance can be easily visualized from body surface area and estimated without extensive measurements of birds and floor areas. It is recommended that the minimum space requirement for poultry should be no less than the equivalent of 50% of the bird's body surface area. This recommendation was based on the principle that all birds in an enclosure should be able to rest simultaneously without contacting another bird or the walls of the enclosure.

The effect of haloperidol on the performance of stereotyped behavior in sows.

Environmentally induced stereotypies in gestating sows were inhibited by haloperidol. This inhibitory effect was stronger in sows that directed stereotyped activities toward objects in the environment than in sows performing self-directed stereotypies. The results indicate that dopamine is involved in the performance of stereotypies in pigs, and that haloperidol seem to impair motivational arousal primarily by reducing the rewarding impact of stereotyped self-stimulation.

Behavior, production, and well-being of the laying hen. 1. Effects of movable roosts, relationship of cage mates, and genetic stock.

The effects of movable roosts, relationship of cage mates (siblings versus nonsiblings), and genetic stock on measures of behavior, production, and physical condition were investigated. Sibling and nonsibling pairs of hens derived from two male parental stocks (designated MPS1 and MPS2) were randomly assigned to two cage batteries (384 hens total). The batteries were identical except that the cages of one had individual wood roosts, which were automatically raised at night and lowered the next morning. The laying phase comprised 13 28-day periods. On the first 4 days of Periods 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11, video recordings were made of 8 cages per day. Video-recorded data for Period 5 were discarded, however, because equipment failure caused an unplanned photoperiod ratio. Direct visual observations were carried out in Period 13. Egg production and feed consumption were recorded in each period. Feather scores were determined in Periods 3, 6, 9, and 12, and in Periods 6 and 13, hens were weighed and the number of lesions to the feet counted. Overall, roosts appeared to improve well-being. Resting occurred more in cages with roosts, feathering was better initially, body weights were slightly higher, and foot lesions were were fewer. Egg production was not affected except that egg cracks were more frequent in roosts cages. Relationship of cage mates had relatively little influence. However, in conventional cages, nonsiblings manifested more bobbing behavior, and in MPS1, nonsiblings had higher feed consumed per dozen eggs. Hens of MPS1 performed more head flicking, drinking, physical displacement, aggression, and cage wall climbing than MPS2 hens. They also had higher egg production, weaker egg shells, poorer feathering, and more lesions to the feet. The genetic stock differences suggest that hens of MPS1 experienced poorer well-being. None of the treatments significantly affected mortality.

Animal welfare: ethical aspects and practical considerations.

The concern for food animal well-being is one of several serious issues facing intensive animal agriculture. This paper focuses on ethical concepts relevant to the treatment of farm animals and discusses the reasons for social attractiveness of animal welfare philosophy. It defines animal quality of life to be a function of satisfaction of animal needs and proposes longevity studies to assess how efficiently these needs are being satisfied in various production systems.

Locomotion of broiler chickens in floor pens.

Locomotion has a major effect on production and animal welfare as it relates to feed and water acquisition, feed utilization, carcass quality, health, and physical vigor. The locomotor abilities of the broiler are also important considerations in pen design and placement of feed and water dispensers. To study the locomotion of broiler chickens and the effect stocking density has on locomotion, eight groups of broiler chickens were observed in an experimental floor pen (1.2 by 1.7 m). A Videomex V Image Motion Computer was used to determine the distance traveled and the frame-by-frame (30 frames per s) location of a focal bird. Four densities (660, 790, 990, and 1320 cm2 per bird) were tested, one on each day of the 4-day recording period for each group of birds. Broiler chickens were active throughout the day and traveled an average distance of 8.8 m per h or 212 m per day. Increasing housing density reduced the distance traveled (10, 8.8, 8.5, and 8.1 m per h for 1,320, 990, 790, and 660 cm2 per bird, respectively) but did not affect the average number of visits to the feeders (4 per h) and water cups (2 per h). The focal birds used the total space provided during the day, indicating that they were not consistently socially restricted to certain areas of the pen.

Genetic assessment of the behavior of White Leghorn type pullets in an open field.

Open field tests were carried out using 17-wk-old pullets derived from two commercial White Leghorn type stocks of males bred to White Leghorn type females from a stock kept at the University of Guelph. Behavioural differences both between and within stocks were investigated, and the heritabilities of the behavioral variables were calculated. The offspring of male parental Stock 1 took longer to manifest pecking behavior than those of male parental Stock 2, and also made less use of the areas of the open field farthest from the starting point. Male parental Stock 1 showed significant variability due to sires for sitting and standing behavior, whereas for male parental Stock 2, variability existed for neck extension and the number of behavioral states manifested. Significant variability due to dams was apparent for several behavioral variables. Heritability estimates ranged from zero to quite high, with those corresponding to the significant sire effects being the highest. The results suggest that the offspring of male parental Stock 2 were the more responsive to social stimuli and were possibly more investigative. Significant sire and dam effects indicate that there are differences in the way individual chickens respond to novel environments, and that these responses may be modifiable through selection.

Estrous behavior in confined beef cows.

Forty-two postpartum beef cows were continuously monitored for behavioral signs of estrus until 100 d postpartum. Twice-weekly blood samples were collected and assayed for plasma progesterone concentrations. The duration of standing increased, recumbency decreased and intra-pen ambulation increased significantly on the day of estrus in comparison to the average of the 4 d prior to and after estrus. The average duration of the receptivity phase (standing when mounted) was 4.4 h, with a range of individual variation between 1 and 18 h. The highest occurrence of standing when mounted was observed during the first hour of the receptivity phase, gradually declining thereafter. Also, other recorded estrual activities, particularly being chin-pressed, being sniffed and sniffing other cows had their highest peak during the first hour of the receptivity phase. Plasma progesterone concentrations revealed a gradual increase in the postpartum estrus sequence. Based on the progesterone profile up to 100 d postpartum, 95% of the herd started to cycle regularly, 93% displayed mounting or being mounted during estrus, and 86% displayed receptivity consistently after initiation of regular cycling. The interval from parturition to first occurrence of a behavioral sign of estrus was 52.3 d (SD = 17.1 d).