Coordinate induction of PPAR alpha and SREBP2 in multifunctional protein 2 deficient mice.

Mice with inactivation of the D-specific multifunctional protein 2 (MFP2), a crucial enzyme of peroxisomal beta-oxidation, develop multiple pathologies in diverse tissues already starting in the postnatal period. Gene expression profiling performed on liver of 2-day-old pups revealed up-regulation of PPAR alpha responsive genes in knockout mice. Surprisingly, also genes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis were markedly induced. Real-time PCR confirmed the induction of PPAR alpha target genes and of HMGCR and SREBP2, both involved in cholesterol synthesis, in lactating and in adult MFP2 knockout mice. In accordance, the rate of cholesterol biosynthesis was significantly increased in liver of knockout mice but the hepatic cholesterol concentration was unaltered. In MFP2/PPAR alpha double knockout mice, up-regulations of SREBP2 and HMGCR were markedly attenuated. These data demonstrate a tight interrelationship between induction of PPAR alpha by endogenous ligands and up-regulation of genes of cholesterol biosynthesis through increased expression of SREBP2.

Absence of functional peroxisomes from mouse CNS causes dysmyelination and axon degeneration.

Peroxisomal metabolism is essential for normal brain development both in men and in mice. Using conditional knock-out mice, we recently showed that peroxisome deficiency in liver has a severe and persistent impact on the formation of cortex and cerebellum, whereas absence of functional peroxisomes from the CNS only causes developmental delays without obvious alteration of brain architecture. We now report that a substantial fraction of the latter Nes-Pex5 knock-out mice survive into adulthood but develop progressive motoric and coordination problems, impaired exploration, and a deficit in cognition and die before the age of 6 months. Histopathologically, both the white and gray matter of the CNS displayed a region-specific accumulation of neutral lipids, astrogliosis and microgliosis, upregulation of catalase, and scattered cell death. Nes-Pex5 knock-out mice featured a dramatic reduction of myelin staining in corpus callosum, whereas cerebellum and other white matter tracts were less affected or unchanged. This was accompanied by a depletion of alkenylphospholipids in myelin and differentially reduced immunoreactivity of myelin proteins. EM analysis revealed that myelin wrappings around axons did still form, but they showed a reduction in thickness relative to axon diameters. Remarkably, multifocal axonal damage occurred in the corpus callosum. Thereby, debris accumulated between axolemma and inner myelin surface and axons collapsed, although myelin sheaths remained present. These anomalies of myelinated axons were already present in juvenile mice but aggravated in adulthood. Together, loss of CNS peroxisomal metabolism both affects myelin sheaths and axonal integrity possibly via independent pathways.

Peroxisomal multifunctional protein-2: the enzyme, the patients and the knockout mouse model.

The mammalian multifunctional protein-2 (MFP-2, also called multifunctional enzyme 2, D-bifunctional enzyme or 17-beta-estradiol dehydrogenase type IV) was identified by several groups about a decade ago. It plays a central role in peroxisomal beta-oxidation as it handles most, if not all, peroxisomal beta-oxidation substrates. Deficiency of this enzyme in man causes a severe developmental syndrome with abnormalities in several organs but in particular in the brain, leading to death within the first year of life. Accumulation of branched-long-chain fatty acids and very-long-chain fatty acids and a disturbed synthesis of bile acids were documented in these patients. A mouse model with MFP-2 deficiency only partly phenocopies the human disease. Although the expected metabolic abnormalities are present, no neurodevelopmental aberrations are observed. However, the survival of these mice into adulthood allowed to document the importance of this enzyme for the normal functioning of the brain, eyes and testis. In the present review, the identification and biochemical characteristics of MFP-2, and the consequences of MFP-2 dysfunction in humans and in mice will be discussed.

Peroxisomal multifunctional protein-2 deficiency causes motor deficits and glial lesions in the adult central nervous system.

In humans, mutations inactivating multifunctional protein-2 (MFP-2), and thus peroxisomal beta-oxidation, cause neuronal heterotopia and demyelination, which is clinically reflected by hypotonia, seizures, and death within the first year of life. In contrast, our recently generated MFP-2-deficient mice did not show neurodevelopmental abnormalities but exhibited aberrations in bile acid metabolism and one of three of them died early postnatally. In the postweaning period, all survivors developed progressive motor deficits, including abnormal cramping reflexes of the limbs and loss of mobility, with death at 6 months. Motor impairment was not accompanied by lesions of peripheral nerves or muscles. However, in the central nervous system MFP-2-deficient mice overexpressed catalase in glial cells, accumulated lipids in ependymal cells and in the molecular layer of the cerebellum, exhibited severe astrogliosis and reactive microglia predominantly within the gray matter of the brain and the spinal cord, whereas synaptic and myelin markers were not affected. This culminated in degenerative changes of astroglia cells but not in overt neuronal lesions. Neither the motor deficits nor the brain lesions were aggravated by increasing the branched-chain fatty acid concentration through dietary supplementation. These data indicate that MFP-2 deficiency in mice causes a neurological phenotype in adulthood that is manifested primarily by astroglial damage.

Peroxisomal multifunctional protein 2 is essential for lipid homeostasis in Sertoli cells and male fertility in mice.

Inactivation of peroxisomal beta-oxidation in mice, by knocking out multifunctional protein-2 (MFP-2; also called d-bifunctional enzyme), causes male infertility. In the testis, extensive accumulations of neutral lipids were observed in Sertoli cells, beginning in prepubertal mice and evolving in complete testicular atrophy by the age of 4 months. Spermatogenesis was already severely affected at the age of 5 wk, and pre- and postmeiotic germ cells gradually disappeared from the tubuli seminiferi. Based on cytochemical stainings and biochemical analyses, the lipid droplets consisted of cholesteryl esters and neutral glycerolipids. Furthermore, peroxisomal beta-oxidation substrates, such as very-long-chain fatty acids and pristanic acid, accumulated in the testis, whereas the concentration of docosapentaenoic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid and peroxisomal beta-oxidation product, was reduced. The testicular defects were also present in double MFP-2/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha knockout mice, ruling out the possibility that they were mediated through the activation of this nuclear receptor. Immunoreactivity for peroxisomal proteins, including MFP-2, was detected in Sertoli cells as well as in germ cells and Leydig cells. The pivotal role of peroxisomal metabolism in Sertoli cells was also demonstrated by generating mice with a Sertoli cell-selective elimination of peroxisomes through cell type-specific inactivation of the peroxin 5 gene. These mice also developed lipid inclusions and were infertile, and their testes fully degenerated by the age of 4 months. In conclusion, the present data demonstrate that peroxisomal beta-oxidation is essential for lipid homeostasis in the testis and for male fertility.

Overexpression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARalpha)-regulated genes in liver in the absence of peroxisome proliferation in mice deficient in both L- and D-forms of enoyl-CoA hydratase/dehydrogenase enzymes of peroxisomal beta-oxidation system.

Peroxisomal beta-oxidation system consists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha)-inducible pathway capable of catalyzing straight-chain acyl-CoAs and a second noninducible pathway catalyzing the oxidation of 2-methyl-branched fatty acyl-CoAs. Disruption of the inducible beta-oxidation pathway in mice at the level of fatty acyl-CoA oxidase (AOX), the first and rate-limiting enzyme, results in spontaneous peroxisome proliferation and sustained activation of PPARalpha, leading to the development of liver tumors, whereas disruptions at the level of the second enzyme of this classical pathway or of the noninducible system had no such discernible effects. We now show that mice with complete inactivation of peroxisomal beta-oxidation at the level of the second enzyme, enoyl-CoA hydratase/L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (L-PBE) of the inducible pathway and D-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase/D-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (D-PBE) of the noninducible pathway (L-PBE-/-D-PBE-/-), exhibit severe growth retardation and postnatal mortality with none surviving beyond weaning. L-PBE-/-D-PBE-/- mice that survived exceptionally beyond the age of 3 weeks exhibited overexpression of PPARalpha-regulated genes in liver, despite the absence of morphological evidence of hepatic peroxisome proliferation. These studies establish that peroxisome proliferation in rodent liver is highly correlatable with the induction mostly of the L- and D-PBE genes. We conclude that disruption of peroxisomal fatty acid beta-oxidation at the level of second enzyme in mice leads to the induction of many of the PPARalpha target genes independently of peroxisome proliferation in hepatocytes, raising the possibility that intermediate metabolites of very long-chain fatty acids and peroxisomal beta-oxidation act as ligands for PPARalpha.