Conceptualization, measurement, and effects of pregnancy-specific stress: review of research using the original and revised Prenatal Distress Questionnaire.

Pregnancy-specific stress (PSS) arises from the numerous changes that women experience during pregnancy and from their concerns about childbirth and the health of their offspring. Prolonged or elevated maternal stress heightens risk for poor fetal, infant, and child outcomes. The Prenatal Distress Questionnaire (PDQ) and its expanded successor, the revised Prenatal Distress Questionnaire (NuPDQ), were developed to assess PSS, but their psychometric properties and findings are not well-documented. We reviewed research using the PDQ (n = 45) or NuPDQ (n = 37). Results establish that PSS as measured by these instruments is common in pregnancy; PSS is associated with sociodemographic and obstetric characteristics, perceptions of pregnancy, health behaviors, maternal health, and birth outcomes. The NuPDQ is an especially appropriate tool to assess PSS, with demonstrated reliability and convergent, concurrent, and predictive validity. The ability to assess PSS in a reliable and valid manner is critical to advance research and improve maternal and child health.

Pregnancy-specific coping and changes in emotional distress from mid- to late pregnancy.

Objective: To examine whether pregnancy-specific coping predicts changes in emotional distress from mid- to late pregnancy. Background: There is a need to identify ways of coping that reduce or elevate emotional distress in pregnant women as such distress increases the risk of adverse birth outcomes. Methods: 132 women receiving prenatal care from a university hospital midwifery practice were recruited prior to 25 weeks gestation (M = 19.58, SD = 5.14). The state anxiety version of the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI) and the Revised Prenatal Distress Questionnaire (NuPDQ) were administered in mid- (M = 25.7 weeks, SD = 4.55) and late (M = 33.4 weeks, SD = 4.18) pregnancy and the Revised Prenatal Coping Inventory (NuPCI) at the latter timepoint. Results: Factor analysis of the NuPCI identified five distinct, conceptually interpretable types of coping: Prayer/Spirituality, Receiving Social Support, Planning/Preparation, Positive Appraisal, and Avoidant Coping. Avoidant Coping was used least frequently and Positive Appraisal was used most. The STPI and NuPDQ were aggregated to create a measure of emotional distress. After controlling for mid-pregnancy distress, Avoidant Coping predicted greater emotional distress in late pregnancy (ß = .18, R2 = .61, p < .01) and Positive Appraisal predicted lower late pregnancy distress (ß = -.15, R2 = .60, p < .01). Conclusion: This is one of the first studies to demonstrate that specific ways of coping with stress during pregnancy predict changes in pregnant women's emotional distress. The NuPCI is a psychometrically sound self-report instrument to examine coping and its association with emotional distress.

Positive family relationships: Longitudinal network of relations.

The construct of positive family relationships (PFR), defined as family members getting along well and supporting each other, was investigated in a long-term prospective study. A newly constructed scale of positive family relationships developed using the nominal response model of item-response theory, was subject to a longitudinal network of relations analysis. The conceptualization for this research was founded on a positive psychology framework. Data derived from the Fullerton Longitudinal Study and spanned 20 years from middle childhood (age 9 years) to early adulthood (age 29 years). Evidence indicated both stability and change in PFR across time. Moderate to high stability of individual differences among families across 9 annual assessments was found from ages 9-17 years. Concomitantly across these years, there was a progressive decline in PFR. PFR proved to be independent of socioeconomic status. Specific conceptually based directional hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling. Multiple sources of information included intra- and cross-informant, as well as objective and ecologically valid data. The network of relations involved concurrent and predictive criterion-related variables. PFR had a pervasive relation to a variety of psychological domains across time. As predicted, PFR related (a) positively to family cohesion and inversely to family conflict, (b) positively to parental social support, (c) positively to children's self-concept, (d) positively to children's academic performance and educational attainment, and (e) inversely to children's behavior problems. The theoretical importance of the findings and the applicability of the PFR Scale for both researchers and practitioners in the field of family psychology are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Applying the Nominal Response Model Within a Longitudinal Framework to Construct the Positive Family Relationships Scale.

A psychometric analysis was conducted using the nominal response model under the item response theory framework to construct the Positive Family Relationships scale. Using data from the Fullerton Longitudinal Study, this scale was constructed within a long-term longitudinal framework spanning middle childhood through adolescence. Items tapping this construct were completed annually by mothers when children were aged 9 to 17 years. The scale measures a construct customized for each age with uniquely informative items consisting exclusively of discriminating response categories as evaluated using the nominal response model. By using longitudinal data, the study is innovative in implementing the method of test equating to a psychological construct across nine assessments spanning 8 years. Future research pertaining to validity is discussed.