Segregation of α- and ß-Globin Gene Cluster in Vertebrate Evolution: Chance or Necessity?

The review is devoted to the patterns of evolution of α- and ß-globin gene domains. A hypothesis is presented according to which segregation of the ancestral cluster of α/ß-globin genes in Amniota occurred due to the performance by α-globins and ß-globins of non-canonical functions not related to oxygen transport.

Co-Regulated Genes and Gene Clusters.

There are many co-regulated genes in eukaryotic cells. The coordinated activation or repression of such genes occurs at specific stages of differentiation, or under the influence of external stimuli. As a rule, co-regulated genes are dispersed in the genome. However, there are also gene clusters, which contain paralogous genes that encode proteins with similar functions. In this aspect, they differ significantly from bacterial operons containing functionally linked genes that are not paralogs. In this review, we discuss the reasons for the existence of gene clusters in vertebrate cells and propose that clustering is necessary to ensure the possibility of selective activation of one of several similar genes.

Manipulation of Cellular Processes via Nucleolus Hijaking in the Course of Viral Infection in Mammals.

Due to their exceptional simplicity of organization, viruses rely on the resources, molecular mechanisms, macromolecular complexes, regulatory pathways, and functional compartments of the host cell for an effective infection process. The nucleolus plays an important role in the process of interaction between the virus and the infected cell. The interactions of viral proteins and nucleic acids with the nucleolus during the infection process are universal phenomena and have been described for almost all taxonomic groups. During infection, proteins of the nucleolus in association with viral components can be directly used for the processes of replication and transcription of viral nucleic acids and the assembly and transport of viral particles. In the course of a viral infection, the usurpation of the nucleolus functions occurs and the usurpation is accompanied by profound changes in ribosome biogenesis. Recent studies have demonstrated that the nucleolus is a multifunctional and dynamic compartment. In addition to the biogenesis of ribosomes, it is involved in regulating the cell cycle and apoptosis, responding to cellular stress, repairing DNA, and transcribing RNA polymerase II-dependent genes. A viral infection can be accompanied by targeted transport of viral proteins to the nucleolus, massive release of resident proteins of the nucleolus into the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm, the movement of non-nucleolar proteins into the nucleolar compartment, and the temporary localization of viral nucleic acids in the nucleolus. The interaction of viral and nucleolar proteins interferes with canonical and non-canonical functions of the nucleolus and results in a change in the physiology of the host cell: cell cycle arrest, intensification or arrest of ribosome biogenesis, induction or inhibition of apoptosis, and the modification of signaling cascades involved in the stress response. The nucleolus is, therefore, an important target during viral infection. In this review, we discuss the functional impact of viral proteins and nucleic acid interaction with the nucleolus during infection.

Mechanisms mediating suppression of globin gene transcription in Danio rerio nonerythroid cells.

We studied the repression of adult and embryo-larval genes of the major globin gene locus in D. rerio fibroblasts. The results obtained suggest that at least some of the globin genes are repressed by Polycomb, similarly to human α-globin genes. Furthermore, within two α/ß globin gene pairs, repression of α-type and ß-type genes appears to be mediated by different mechanisms, as increasing the level of histone acetylation can activate transcription of only ß-type genes.

Evolution of the Genome 3D Organization: Comparison of Fused and Segregated Globin Gene Clusters.

The genomes are folded in a complex three-dimensional (3D) structure. Some features of this organization are common for all eukaryotes, but little is known about its evolution. Here, we have studied the 3D organization and regulation of zebrafish globin gene domain and compared its organization and regulation with those of other vertebrate species. In birds and mammals, the α- and ß-globin genes are segregated into separate clusters located on different chromosomes and organized into chromatin domains of different types, whereas in cold-blooded vertebrates, including Danio rerio, α- and ß-globin genes are organized into common clusters. The major globin gene locus of Danio rerio is of particular interest as it is located in a genomic area that is syntenic in vertebrates and is controlled by a conserved enhancer. We have found that the major globin gene locus of Danio rerio is structurally and functionally segregated into two spatially distinct subloci harboring either adult or embryo-larval globin genes. These subloci demonstrate different organization at the level of chromatin domains and different modes of spatial organization, which appears to be due to selective interaction of the upstream enhancer with the sublocus harboring globin genes of the adult type. These data are discussed in terms of evolution of linear and 3D organization of gene clusters in vertebrates.

Characterization of the enhancer element of the Danio rerio minor globin gene locus.

In Danio rerio, the alpha- and beta-globin genes are present in two clusters: a major cluster located on chromosome 3 and a minor cluster located on chromosome 12. In contrast to the segregated alpha- and beta-globin gene domains of warm-blooded animals, in Danio rerio, each cluster contains both alpha- and beta-globin genes. Expression of globin genes present in the major cluster is controlled by an erythroid-specific enhancer similar to the major regulatory element of mammalian and avian alpha-globin gene domains. The enhancer controlling expression of the globin genes present in the minor locus has not been identified yet. Based on the distribution of epigenetic marks, we have selected two genomic regions that might harbor an enhancer of the minor locus. Using transient transfection of constructs with a reporter gene, we have demonstrated that a ~500-bp DNA fragment located ~1.7 Kb upstream of the αe4 gene possesses an erythroid-specific enhancer active with respect to promoters present in both the major and the minor globin gene loci of Danio rerio. The identified enhancer element harbors clustered binding sites for GATA-1, NF-E2, and EKLF similar to the enhancer of the major globin locus on chromosome 3. Both enhancers appear to have emerged as a result of independent evolution of a duplicated regulatory element present in an ancestral single alpha-/beta-globin locus that existed before teleost-specific genome duplication.

Dynamics of double strand breaks and chromosomal translocations.

Chromosomal translocations are a major cause of cancer. At the same time, the mechanisms that lead to specific chromosomal translocations that associate different gene regions remain largely unknown. Translocations are induced by double strand breaks (DSBs) in DNA. Here we review recent data on the mechanisms of generation, mobility and repair of DSBs and stress the importance of the nuclear organization in this process.

Perinucleolar relocalization and nucleolin as crucial events in the transcriptional activation of key genes in mantle cell lymphoma.

In mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), one allele of the cyclin D1 (Ccnd1) gene is translocated from its normal localization on chromosome 11 to chromosome 14. This is considered as the crucial event in the transformation process of a normal naive B-cell; however, the actual molecular mechanism leading to Ccnd1 activation remains to be deciphered. Using a combination of three-dimensional and immuno-fluorescence in situ hybridization experiments, the radial position of the 2 Ccnd1 alleles was investigated in MCL-derived cell lines and malignant cells from affected patients. The translocated Ccnd1 allele was observed significantly more distant from the nuclear membrane than its nontranslocated counterpart, with a very high proportion of IgH-Ccnd1 chromosomal segments localized next to a nucleolus. These perinucleolar areas were found to contain active RNA polymerase II (PolII) clusters. Nucleoli are rich in nucleolin, a potent transcription factor that we found to bind sites within the Ccnd1 gene specifically in MCL cells and to activate Ccnd1 transcription. We propose that the Ccnd1 transcriptional activation in MCL cells relates to the repositioning of the rearranged IgH-Ccnd1-carrying chromosomal segment in a nuclear territory with abundant nucleolin and active PolII molecules. Similar transforming events could occur in Burkitt and other B-cell lymphomas.

Communication of genome regulatory elements in a folded chromosome.

The most popular model of gene activation by remote enhancers postulates that the enhancers interact directly with target promoters via the looping of intervening DNA fragments. This interaction is thought to be necessary for the stabilization of the Pol II pre-initiation complex and/or for the transfer of transcription factors and Pol II, which are initially accumulated at the enhancer, to the promoter. The direct interaction of enhancer(s) and promoter(s) is only possible when these elements are located in close proximity within the nuclear space. Here, we discuss the molecular mechanisms for maintaining the close proximity of the remote regulatory elements of the eukaryotic genome. The models of an active chromatin hub (ACH) and an active nuclear compartment are considered, focusing on the role of chromatin folding in juxtaposing remote DNA sequences. The interconnection between the functionally dependent architecture of the interphase chromosome and nuclear compartmentalization is also discussed.

Distinct distribution of ectopically expressed histone variants H2A.Bbd and MacroH2A in open and closed chromatin domains.

BACKGROUND: It becomes increasingly evident that nuclesomes are far from being identical to each other. This nucleosome diversity is due partially to the existence of histone variants encoded by separate genes. Among the known histone variants the less characterized are H2A.Bbd and different forms of macroH2A. This is especially true in the case of H2A.Bbd as there are still no commercially available antibodies specific to H2A.Bbd that can be used for chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). METHODS: We have generated HeLa S3 cell lines stably expressing epitope-tagged versions of macroH2A1.1, H2A.Bbd or canonical H2A and analyzed genomic distribution of the tagged histones using ChIP-on-chip technique. RESULTS: The presence of histone H2A variants macroH2A1.1 and H2A.Bbd has been analyzed in the chromatin of several segments of human chromosomes 11, 16 and X that have been chosen for their different gene densities and chromatin status. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) followed by hybridization with custom NimbleGene genomic microarrays demonstrated that in open chromatin domains containing tissue-specific along with housekeeping genes, the H2A.Bbd variant was preferentially associated with the body of a subset of transcribed genes. The macroH2A1.1 variant was virtually absent from some genes and underrepresented in others. In contrast, in closed chromatin domains which contain only tissue-specific genes inactive in HeLa S3 cells, both macroH2A1.1 and H2A.Bbd histone variants were present and often colocalized. CONCLUSIONS: Genomic distribution of macro H2A and H2A.Bbd does not follow any simple rule and is drastically different in open and closed genomic domains.

The inactivation of the π gene in chicken erythroblasts of adult lineage is not mediated by packaging of the embryonic part of the α-globin gene domain into a repressive heterochromatin-like structure.

The developmental switch of globin gene expression is a characteristic feature of vertebrate organisms. The switch of ß-globin expression is believed to depend on reconfiguration of the active chromatin hub, which contains transcribed genes and regulatory elements. Mechanisms controlling the switch of α-globin gene expression are less clear. Here, we studied the mode of chromatin packaging of the chicken α-globin gene domain in red blood cells (RBCs) of primitive and definite lineages and the spatial configuration of this domain in RBCs of primitive lineage. It has been demonstrated that RBCs of primitive lineage already contain the adult-type active chromatin hub but the embryonal α-type globin π gene is not recruited to this hub. Distribution of active and repressive histone modifications over the α-globin gene domain in RBCs of definite and primitive lineages does not corroborate the hypothesis that inactivation of the π gene in RBCs of adult lineage is mediated via formation of a local repressed chromatin domain. This conclusion is supported by the demonstration that in chicken erythroblasts of adult lineage, the embryonal and adult segments of the α-globin gene domain show similar elevated sensitivities to DNase I.

Control of human cytomegalovirus gene expression by differential histone modifications during lytic and latent infection of a monocytic cell line.

Non-differentiated THP-1 cells can be infected by human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) Towne strain, which persists in these cells in a non-active (latent) form without undergoing a productive cycle. The same cells become permissive for HCMV lytic infection after induction of cell differentiation by treatment with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. We used this cellular model to study the possible role of histone modifications in the control of HCMV latency. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation with antibodies against histone H3 acetylated or dimethylated in position K9, we demonstrated that in lytically infected cells the HCMV enhancer was associated with heavy acetylated but not dimethylated H3. In the case of latent infection, the HCMV enhancer was associated with neither acetylated nor dimethylated H3. HCMV genes encoding DNA polymerase (early), pp65 (early-late) and pp150 (late) proteins were associated preferentially with acetylated H3 in lytically infected cells and with dimethylated H3 in latently infected cells. These data strongly suggest that K9 methylation of H3 is involved in HCMV gene repression, while association of the above genes with acetylated histones is likely to be necessary for active transcription. It can be postulated that the same histone modifications are used to mark active and repressed genes in both cellular and viral chromatin.

A CTCF-dependent silencer located in the differentially methylated area may regulate expression of a housekeeping gene overlapping a tissue-specific gene domain.

The tissue-specific chicken alpha-globin gene domain represents one of the paradigms, in terms of its constitutively open chromatin conformation and the location of several regulatory elements within the neighboring housekeeping gene. Here, we show that an 0.2-kb DNA fragment located approximately 4 kb upstream to the chicken alpha-globin gene cluster contains a binding site for the multifunctional protein factor CTCF and possesses silencer activity which depends on CTCF binding, as demonstrated by site-directed mutagenesis of the CTCF recognition sequence. CTCF was found to be associated with this recognition site in erythroid cells but not in lymphoid cells where the site is methylated. A functional promoter directing the transcription of the apparently housekeeping ggPRX gene was found 120 bp from the CTCF-dependent silencer. The data are discussed in terms of the hypothesis that the CTCF-dependent silencer stabilizes the level of ggPRX gene transcription in erythroid cells where the promoter of this gene may be influenced by positive cis-regulatory signals activating alpha-globin gene transcription.

Mapping long-range chromatin organization within the chicken alpha-globin gene domain using oligonucleotide DNA arrays.

We have analyzed the organization of the chicken alpha-globin gene domain using DNA miniarrays and have found two novel chromatin loop attachment regions. We have found a 40-kb loop domain that includes all the alpha-globin genes in cells of erythroid origin. One of the domain borders colocalizes almost exactly with a strong MAR element and with a block of enhancer-blocking elements found earlier at the upstream end of the alpha-globin gene domain. The domain structure was found to be different in a lymphoid cell line DT40. We propose to use the technique of DNA arrays to map the nuclear matrix attachment sites that define the borders of chromosome loop domains. The technique of DNA arrays permits a large number of DNA sequences to be immobilized on a glass or nylon matrix. This may prove useful for mapping chromatin loop positions within the human genome by using a pool of chromatin loop attachment regions as a probe in a hybridization with a DNA chip containing a specific DNA region.

RNA-dependent nuclear matrix contains a 33 kb globin full domain transcript as well as prosomes but no 26S proteasomes.

Previously, we have shown that in murine myoblasts prosomes are constituents of the nuclear matrix; a major part of the latter was found to be RNase sensitive. Here, we further define the RNA-dependent matrix in avian erythroblastosis virus (AEV) transformed erythroid cells in relation to its structure, presence of specific RNA, prosomes and/or proteasomes. These cells transcribe but do not express globin genes prior to induction. Electron micrographs show little difference in matrices treated with DNase alone or with both, DNase and RNase. In situ hybridization with alpha globin riboprobes shows that this matrix includes globin transcripts. Of particular interest is that, apparently, a nearly 35 kb long globin full domain transcript (FDT), including genes, intergenic regions and a large upstream domain is a part of the RNA-dependent nuclear matrix. The 23K-type of prosomes, previously shown to be co-localized with globin transcripts in the nuclear RNA processing centers, were found all over the nuclear matrix. Other types of prosomes show different distributions in the intact cell but similar distribution patterns on the matrix. Globin transcripts and at least 80% of prosomes disappear from matrices upon RNase treatment. Interestingly, the 19S proteasome modulator complex is insensitive to RNase treatment. Only 20S prosomes but not 26S proteasomes are thus part of the RNA-dependent nuclear matrix. We suggest that giant pre-mRNA and FDTs in processing, aligning prosomes and other RNA-binding proteins are involved in the organization of the dynamic nuclear matrix. It is proposed that the putative function of RNA within the nuclear matrix and, thus, the nuclear dynamic architecture, might explain the giant size and complex organization of primary transcripts and their introns.

The 33 kb transcript of the chicken alpha-globin gene domain is part of the nuclear matrix.

Giant nuclear transcripts, and in particular the RNAs of the globin gene domains which are much larger than their canonical pre-mRNAs, have been an enigma for many years. We show here that in avian erythroblastosis virus (AEV)-transformed chicken erythroleukaemic cells, where globin gene expression is abortive, the whole domain of alpha-globin genes is transcribed for about 33 kb in the globin direction and that this RNA is part of the nuclear matrix. Northern blot hybridisation with strand-specific riboprobes, recognising genes and intergenic sequences, and RT-PCR with downstream primers, show that the continuous full domain transcript (FDT) starts in the vicinity of a putative LCR and includes all the genes as well as known regulatory sites, the replication origin, and the DNA loop anchorage region in the upstream area. Absent in chicken fibroblasts, the globin FDT overlaps the major part of the ggPRX housekeeping gene that is transcribed in the opposite direction. RT-PCR and in situ hybridisation with genic and extra-genic globin probes demonstrated that the globin FDT is a component of the nuclear matrix. We suggest that the globin FDTs keep the domain in an active state, and the globin RNAs on the processing pathway are a component of the nuclear matrix. They may take part in the dynamic nuclear architecture when productively processed, or turn over slowly when globins are not synthesised.

Heterologous CpG island becomes extensively methylated in the genome of transgenic mice.

It is demonstrated that a heterologous (chicken) CpG island containing five Sp1 canonical recognition sequences becomes highly methylated in the genome of transgenic mice bearing one or several copies of the transgene. Similar levels of methylation of the chicken CpG island were observed in different tissues of transgenic mice except the brain where the level of methylation of this chicken CpG-rich fragment was significantly lower than in other tissues. Analysis of susceptibility of the "transgenic" CpG island to Hpa II and Msp I restriction nucleases revealed an unusual methylation pattern interfering with the action of both of these enzymes. A conclusion has been drawn that heterologous CpG island per se does not contain all necessary signals permitting to maintain its own non-methylated status in the genome of transgenic animals.