What Is the Risk? Epidemiology and Evidence for Surveillance Regimens.

Patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have increased risk of colorectal cancer (CRC). The risk for CRC is positively correlated to the duration of disease, extent of colonic involvement, and severity of inflammation. After 8 to 10 years of IBD diagnosis, the risk for CRC rises substantially and screening colonoscopy is recommended. Surveillance colonoscopy interval ranges from 1 to 5 years depending on patient and disease-specific risk factors. IBD patients with high risk factors such as having concomitant primary sclerosing cholangitis, moderate-to-severe inflammation, first-degree relative with CRC at early age, or history of invisible dysplasia or high-risk visible dysplasia should undergo surveillance colonoscopy in 1 year. Meanwhile, those with minimal colonic involvement or ≥2 consecutive unremarkable examinations while in continuous remission may consider extending the surveillance interval to 5 years. Advance in colonoscopy technique such as chromoendoscopy using dyes and/or image digital processing (virtual chromoendoscopy) may enhance dysplasia detection and is the preferred method for IBD surveillance. In the era of high-definition colonoscope, the practice of obtaining extensive biopsies throughout the colon remains controversial but is generally recommended to improve the detection rate of invisible dysplasia. Endoscopic surveillance in IBD has been shown to result in earlier detection of CRC and improved prognosis.

Inhibition of Colon Cancer Cell Growth by Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors Is Independent of cGMP Signaling.

There is growing interest in the potential use of phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors for colorectal cancer (CRC) prevention and treatment. The present study has tested the idea that PDE inhibitors inhibit growth and viability of CRC cell lines by increasing cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and activating cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG). Colon cancer cell lines and those with ectopic PKG2 expression were treated with membrane-permeable 8Br-cGMP or inhibitors of PDE5, PDE9, and PDE10a. Levels of cGMP capable of activating PKG were measured by immunoblotting for phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP). The effects of treatment on CRC cell proliferation and death were measured using hemocytometry with trypan blue. Treatment with 8Br-cGMP had no effect on CRC cell proliferation or death. Endogenous PKG activity was undetectable in any of the CRC cells, but expression of ectopic PKG2 conferred modest inhibition of proliferation but did not affect cell death. Extremely high concentrations of all the PDE inhibitors reduced proliferation in CRC cell lines, but none of them increased cGMP levels, and the effect was independent of PKG expression. The inability of the PDE inhibitors to increase cGMP was due to the lack of endogenous cGMP generating machinery. In conclusion, PDE inhibitors that target cGMP only reduce CRC growth at clinically unachievable concentrations, and do so independent of cGMP signaling through PKG. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A large number of in vitro studies have reported that PDE inhibitors block growth of colon cancer cells by activating cGMP signaling, and that these drugs might be useful for cancer treatment. Our results show that these drugs do not activate cGMP signaling in colon cancer cells due to a lack of endogenous guanylyl cyclase activity, and that growth inhibition is due to toxic effects of clinically unobtainable drug concentrations.

Type-2 cGMP-dependent protein kinase suppresses proliferation and carcinogenesis in the colon epithelium.

A large body of evidence has demonstrated that cyclic-guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), signaling has anti-tumor effects that might be used for colon cancer prevention. The tumor-suppressive mechanism and the signaling components downstream of cGMP remain largely unknown. The present study has characterized the expression of cGMP-dependent protein kinases (PKG1, PKG2) in normal and cancerous tissue from human colon. PKG1 was detected in both normal and tumor tissue, where it localized exclusively to the lamina propria and stroma (respectively). In contrast, PKG2 localized specifically to the epithelium where its expression decreased markedly in tumors compared to matched normal tissue. Neither PKG isoform was detected at the RNA or protein level in established colon cancer cell lines. To test for a potential tumor-suppressor role of PKG2 in the colon epithelium, Prkg2 knockout (KO) mice were subjected to azoxymethane/dextran sulfate-sodium (AOM/DSS) treatment. PKG2 deficiency was associated with crypt hyperplasia (Ki67) and almost twice the number of polyps per mouse as wild-type (WT) siblings. In vitro culture of mouse colon epithelium as organoids confirmed that PKG2 was the only isoform expressed, and it was detected in both proliferating and differentiating epithelial compartments. Colon organoids derived from Prkg2 KO mice proliferated more rapidly and exhibited a reduced ability to differentiate compared to WT controls. Taken together our results highlight PKG2 as the central target of cGMP in the colon, where it suppresses carcinogenesis by controlling proliferation in an epithelial-cell intrinsic manner.

Indispensable role of the Ubiquitin-fold modifier 1-specific E3 ligase in maintaining intestinal homeostasis and controlling gut inflammation.

Intestinal exocrine secretory cells, including Paneth and goblet cells, have a pivotal role in intestinal barrier function and mucosal immunity. Dysfunction of these cells may lead to the pathogenesis of human diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Therefore, identification and elucidation of key molecular mechanisms that regulate the development and function of these exocrine cells would be crucial for understanding of disease pathogenesis and discovery of new therapeutic targets. The Ufm1 conjugation system is a novel ubiquitin-like modification system that consists of Ufm1 (Ubiquitin modifier 1), Uba5 (Ufm1-activating enzyme, E1), Ufc1 (Ufm1-conjugating enzyme, E2) and poorly characterized Ufm1 E3 ligase(s). Recent mouse genetic studies have demonstrated its indispensable role in embryonic development and hematopoiesis. Yet its role in other tissues and organs remains poorly defined. In this study, we found that both Ufl1 and Ufbp1, two key components of the Ufm1 E3 ligase, were highly expressed in the intestinal exocrine cells. Ablation of either Ufl1 and Ufbp1 led to significant loss of both Paneth and goblet cells, which in turn resulted in dysbiotic microbiota and increased susceptibility to experimentally induced colitis. At the cellular and molecular levels, Ufbp1 deficiency caused elevation of endoplasmic reticulum stress and activation of the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) and cell death program. Administration of small molecular chaperone partially prevented loss of Paneth cells caused by acute Ufbp1 deletion. Taken together, our results have provided unambiguous evidence for the crucial role of the Ufm1 E3 ligase in maintenance of intestinal homeostasis and protection from inflammatory diseases.

Clinical utility of plecanatide in the treatment of chronic idiopathic constipation.

Constipation is an important health burden that reduces the quality of life for countless millions of people. Symptom-centric therapeutics are often used to treat constipation due to unknown etiology, but in many cases, these drugs are either inadequate or have significant side effects. More recently, synthetic peptide agonists for epithelial guanylyl cyclase C (GC-C) have been developed which are effective at treating constipation in a sub-population of adult constipation patients. The first to market was linaclotide that is structurally related to the diarrheagenic enterotoxin, but this was followed by plecanatide, which more closely resembles endogenous uroguanylin. Both the drugs exhibit almost identical clinical efficacy in about 20% of patients, with diarrhea being a common side effect. Despite the potential for reduced side effects with plecanatide, detailed analysis suggests that clinically, they are very similar. Ongoing clinical and preclinical studies with these drugs suggest that treating constipation might be the tip of the iceberg in terms of clinical utility. The expression of cGMP signaling components could be diagnostic for functional bowel disorders, and increasing cGMP using GC-C agonists or phosphodiesterase inhibitors has huge potential for treating enteric pain, ulcerative colitis, and for the chemoprevention of colorectal cancer.

Cyclic-GMP-Elevating Agents Suppress Polyposis in ApcMin mice by Targeting the Preneoplastic Epithelium.

The cGMP signaling axis has been implicated in the suppression of intestinal cancers, but the inhibitory mechanism and the extent to which this pathway can be targeted remains poorly understood. This study has tested the effect of cGMP-elevating agents on tumorigenesis in the ApcMin/+ mouse model of intestinal cancer. Treatment of ApcMin/+ mice with the receptor guanylyl-cyclase C (GCC) agonist linaclotide, or the phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE5) inhibitor sildenafil, significantly reduced the number of polyps per mouse (67% and 50%, respectively). Neither of the drugs affected mean polyp size, or the rates of apoptosis and proliferation. This was possibly due to increased PDE10 expression, as endogenous GCC ligands were not deficient in established polyps. These results indicated that the ability of these drugs to reduce polyp multiplicity was primarily due to an effect on nonneoplastic tissues. In support of this idea, ApcMin/+ mice exhibited reduced levels of endogenous GCC agonists in the nonneoplastic intestinal mucosa compared with wild-type animals, and this was associated with crypt hyperplasia and a loss of goblet cells. Administration of either sildenafil or linaclotide suppressed proliferation, and increased both goblet cell numbers and luminal apoptosis in the intestinal mucosa. Taken together, the results demonstrate that targeting cGMP with either PDE5 inhibitors or GCC agonists alters epithelial homeostasis in a manner that reduces neoplasia, and suggests that this could be a viable chemoprevention strategy for patients at high risk of developing colorectal cancer. Cancer Prev Res; 11(2); 81-92. ©2018 AACR.

Effect of myostatin deletion on cardiac and microvascular function.

The objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that increased muscle mass has positive effects on cardiovascular function. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that increases in lean body mass caused by deletion of myostatin improves cardiac performance and vascular function. Echocardiography was used to quantify left ventricular function at baseline and after acute administration of propranolol and isoproterenol to assess ß-adrenergic reactivity. Additionally, resistance vessels in several beds were removed, cannulated, pressurized to 60 mmHg and reactivity to vasoactive stimuli was assessed. Hemodynamics were measured using in vivo radiotelemetry. Myostatin deletion results in increased fractional shortening at baseline. Additionally, arterioles in the coronary and muscular microcirculations are more sensitive to endothelial-dependent dilation while nonmuscular beds or the aorta were unaffected. ß-adrenergic dilation was increased in both coronary and conduit arteries, suggesting a systemic effect of increased muscle mass on vascular function. Overall hemodynamics and physical characteristics (heart weight and size) remained unchanged. Myostatin deletion mimics in part the effects of exercise on cardiovascular function. It significantly increases lean muscle mass and results in muscle-specific increases in endothelium-dependent vasodilation. This suggests that increases in muscle mass may serve as a buffer against pathological states that specifically target cardiac function (heart failure), the ß-adrenergic system (age), and nitric oxide bio-availability (atherosclerosis). Taken together, pharmacological inhibition of the myostatin pathway could prove an excellent mechanism by which the benefits of exercise can be conferred in patients that are unable to exercise.

Carbidopa, a drug in use for management of Parkinson disease inhibits T cell activation and autoimmunity.

Carbidopa is a drug that blocks conversion of levodopa to dopamine outside of central nervous system (CNS) and thus inhibits unwanted side effects of levodopa on organs located outside of CNS during management of Parkinson's Disease (PD). PD is associated with increased expression of inflammatory genes in peripheral and central nervous system (CNS), infiltration of immune cells into brain, and increased numbers of activated/memory T cells. Animal models of PD have shown a critical role of T cells in inducing pathology in CNS. However, the effect of carbidopa on T cell responses in vivo is unknown. In this report, we show that carbidopa strongly inhibited T cell activation in vitro and in vivo. Accordingly, carbidopa mitigated myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide fragment 35-55 (MOG-35-55) induced experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) and collagen induced arthritis in animal models. The data presented here suggest that in addition to blocking peripheral conversion of levodopa, carbidopa may inhibit T cell responses in PD individuals and implicate a potential therapeutic use of carbidopa in suppression of T cell mediated pathologies.

Sildenafil Suppresses Inflammation-Driven Colorectal Cancer in Mice.

Intestinal cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signaling regulates epithelial homeostasis and has been implicated in the suppression of colitis and colon cancer. In this study, we investigated the cGMP-elevating ability of the phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE5) inhibitor sildenafil to prevent disease in the azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS) inflammation-driven colorectal cancer model. Treatment of mice with sildenafil activated cGMP signaling in the colon mucosa and protected against dextran-sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced barrier dysfunction. In mice treated with AOM/DSS, oral administration of sildenafil throughout the disease course reduced polyp multiplicity by 50% compared with untreated controls. Polyps that did form in sildenafil treated mice were less proliferative and more differentiated compared with polyps from untreated mice, but apoptosis was unaffected. Polyps in sildenafil treated mice were also less inflamed; they exhibited reduced myeloid-cell infiltration and reduced expression of iNOS, IFNγ, and IL6 compared with untreated controls. Most of the protection conferred by sildenafil was during the initiation stage of carcinogenesis (38% reduction in multiplicity). Administration of sildenafil during the later promotion stages did not affect multiplicity but had a similar effect on the polyp phenotype, including increased mucus production, and reduced proliferation and inflammation. In summary, the results demonstrate that oral administration of sildenafil suppresses polyp formation and inflammation in mice treated with AOM/DSS. This validation of PDE5 as a target highlights the potential therapeutic value of PDE5 inhibitors for the prevention of colitis-driven colon cancer in humans. Cancer Prev Res; 10(7); 377-88. ©2017 AACRSee related editorial by Piazza, p. 373.

Sildenafil normalizes bowel transit in preclinical models of constipation.

Guanylyl cyclase-C (GC-C) agonists increase cGMP levels in the intestinal epithelium to promote secretion. This process underlies the utility of exogenous GC-C agonists such as linaclotide for the treatment of chronic idiopathic constipation (CIC) and irritable bowel syndrome with constipation (IBS-C). Because GC-C agonists have limited use in pediatric patients, there is a need for alternative cGMP-elevating agents that are effective in the intestine. The present study aimed to determine whether the PDE-5 inhibitor sildenafil has similar effects as linaclotide on preclinical models of constipation. Oral administration of sildenafil caused increased cGMP levels in mouse intestinal epithelium demonstrating that blocking cGMP-breakdown is an alternative approach to increase cGMP in the gut. Both linaclotide and sildenafil reduced proliferation and increased differentiation in colon mucosa, indicating common target pathways. The homeostatic effects of cGMP required gut turnover since maximal effects were observed after 3 days of treatment. Neither linaclotide nor sildenafil treatment affected intestinal transit or water content of fecal pellets in healthy mice. To test the effectiveness of cGMP elevation in a functional motility disorder model, mice were treated with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) to induce colitis and were allowed to recover for several weeks. The recovered animals exhibited slower transit, but increased fecal water content. An acute dose of sildenafil was able to normalize transit and fecal water content in the DSS-recovery animal model, and also in loperamide-induced constipation. The higher fecal water content in the recovered animals was due to a compromised epithelial barrier, which was normalized by sildenafil treatment. Taken together our results show that sildenafil can have similar effects as linaclotide on the intestine, and may have therapeutic benefit to patients with CIC, IBS-C, and post-infectious IBS.

cGMP Signaling Increases Antioxidant Gene Expression by Activating Forkhead Box O3A in the Colon Epithelium.

Signaling through cGMP has therapeutic potential in the colon, where it has been implicated in the suppression of colitis and colon cancer. In this study, we tested the ability of cGMP and type 2 cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG2) to activate forkhead box O (FoxO) in colon cancer cells and in the colon epithelium of mice. We show that activation of PKG2 in colon cancer cells inhibited cell proliferation, inhibited AKT, and activated FoxO. Treatment of colon explants with 8Br-cGMP also activated FoxO target gene expression at both RNA and protein levels, and reduced epithelial reduction-oxidation (redox) stress. FoxO3a was the most prominent isoform in the distal colon epithelium, with prominent luminal staining. FoxO3a levels were reduced in Prkg2-/- animals, and FoxO target genes were unaffected by 8Br-cGMP challenge in vitro. Treatment of mice with the phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor vardenafil (Levitra) mobilized FoxO3a to the nucleus of luminal epithelial cells, which corresponded to increased FoxO target gene expression, reduced redox stress, and increased epithelial barrier integrity. Treatment of human colonic biopsy specimens with 8Br-cGMP also activated catalase and manganese superoxide dismutase expression, indicating that this pathway is conserved in humans. Taken together, these results identify a novel signaling pathway in the colon epithelium, where FoxO tumor suppressors could provide protection from redox stress. Moreover, this pathway is regulated by endogenous cGMP/PKG2 signaling, and can be targeted using phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors.

Constructing multispecies biofilms with defined compositions by sequential deposition of bacteria.

Rationally-assembled multispecies biofilms could benefit applied processes including mixed waste biodegradation and drug biosynthesis by combining complementary metabolic pathways into single functional communities. We hypothesized that the cellular composition of mature multispecies biofilms could be manipulated by controlling the number of each cell type present on newly colonized surfaces. To test this idea, we developed a method for attaching specific numbers of bacteria to a flow cell by recirculating cell suspensions. Initial work revealed a nonlinear relationship between suspension cell density and areal density when two strains of Escherichia coli were simultaneously recirculated; in contrast, sequential recirculation resulted in a predictable deposition of cell numbers. Quantitative analysis of cell distributions in 48-h biofilms comprised of the E. coli strains demonstrated a strong relationship between their distribution at the substratum and their presence in mature biofilms. Sequentially depositing E. coli with either Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Bacillus subtilis determined small but reproducible differences in the areal density of the second microorganism recirculated relative to its areal density when recirculated alone. Overall, the presented method offers a simple and reproducible way to construct multispecies biofilms with defined compositions for biocatalytic processes.