Tritium-labelled isovaleryl-RYYRIK-NH2 as potential antagonist probe for ORL1 nociceptin receptor.

IsoVa-RYYRIK-NH2 is a highly specific antagonist ligand of the opioid receptor-like 1 (ORL1) receptor, an endogenous ligand of which is 17-mer peptide nociceptin. ORL1 antagonists have potential for clinical use as analgesic and antineuropathic drugs, and thus information on the receptor-binding characteristics of antagonists is very important for rational drug design. In the present study, we prepared tritium-labelled isova-RYYRIK-NH2 from its precursor with the 3-methylcrotonyl (CH3)2CCHCO group by a catalytic reduction using tritium gas. The resulting [(3)H]isoVa-RYYRIK-NH2 was evaluated in a saturation binding assay using the COS-7 cell membrane preparations of transiently expressed ORL1. It exhibited more than 90% specific binding with a dissociation constant of 1.21±0.03nM. From the mutual heterologous binding assays using [(3)H]isoVa-RYYRIK-NH2 and [(3)H]nociceptin, isoVa-RYYRIK-NH2 and nociceptin were found to share the receptor-binding site, but each also had a separate specific binding site of its own. They differentiated the two different binding states or conformations of ORL1, which might represent the agonist-active and antagonist-inactive conformations of ORL1. [(3)H]isoVa-RYYRIK-NH2 is thus a key tracer to uncover the amino acid residues important for receptor inactivation.

PKC phosphorylation regulates mGluR5 trafficking by enhancing binding of Siah-1A.

Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS and acts on both ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). The mGluRs are widely distributed in the CNS and modulate a variety of neuronal processes, including neurotransmitter release and ion channel function. In hippocampus and cortex, mGluR5 is highly expressed and plays an important role in the regulation of synaptic plasticity. Calmodulin (CaM) binding dynamically regulates mGluR5 surface expression; however, the mechanisms linking CaM to mGluR5 trafficking are not clear. Recent studies showed that CaM binding to mGluR7 regulates its trafficking in a phosphorylation-dependent manner by disrupting the binding of protein interacting with C kinase 1. The E3 ligase seven in absentia homolog (Siah)-1A binds to mGluR5 and competes with CaM binding, making it an intriguing molecule to regulate phosphorylation-dependent trafficking of mGluR5. In the present study, we find that CaM competes with Siah-1A for mGluR5 binding in a phosphorylation-dependent manner in rat hippocampal neurons. Specifically, phosphorylation of mGluR5 S901 favors Siah-1A binding by displacing CaM. We identified critical residues regulating Siah-1A binding to mGluR5 and showed that binding is essential for the Siah-1A effects on mGluR5 trafficking. Siah-1A binding decreases mGluR5 surface expression and increases endosomal trafficking and lysosomal degradation of mGluR5. Thus CaM-regulated Siah-1A binding to mGluR5 dynamically regulates mGluR5 trafficking. These findings support a conserved role for CaM in regulating mGluR trafficking by PKC-dependent regulation of receptor-binding proteins.

Synaptic targeting of AMPA receptors is regulated by a CaMKII site in the first intracellular loop of GluA1.

The accumulation of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) at synapses is essential for excitatory synaptic transmission. However, the mechanisms underlying synaptic targeting of AMPARs remain elusive. We have now used a molecular replacement approach on an AMPAR-null background to investigate the targeting mechanisms necessary for regulating AMPAR trafficking in the hippocampus. Although there is an extensive literature on the role of the GluA1 C-tail in AMPAR trafficking, there is no effect of overexpressing the C-tail on basal transmission. Instead, we found that the first intracellular loop domain (Loop1) of GluA1, a previously overlooked region within AMPARs, is critical for receptor targeting to synapses, but not for delivery of receptors to the plasma membrane. We also identified a CaMKII phosphorylation site (S567) in the GluA1 Loop1, which is phosphorylated in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we show that S567 is a key residue that regulates Loop1-mediated AMPAR trafficking. Thus, our study reveals a unique mechanism for targeting AMPARs to synapses to mediate synaptic transmission.

Functional comparison of the effects of TARPs and cornichons on AMPA receptor trafficking and gating.

Glutamate receptors of the AMPA subtype (AMPARs) mediate fast synaptic transmission in the brain. These ionotropic receptors rely on auxiliary subunits known as transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs) for both trafficking and gating. Recently, a second family of AMPAR binding proteins, referred to as cornichons, were identified and also proposed to function as auxiliary subunits. Cornichons are transmembrane proteins that modulate AMPAR function in expression systems much like TARPs. In the present study we compare the role of cornichons in controlling AMPA receptor function in neurons and HEK cells to that of TARPs. Cornichons mimic some, but not all, of the actions of TARPs in HEK cells; their role in neurons, however, is more limited. Although expressed cornichons can affect the trafficking of AMPARs, they were not detected on the surface of neurons and failed to alter the kinetics of endogenous AMPARs. This neuronal role is more consistent with that of an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone rather than a bona fide auxiliary subunit.

Spare interactions of highly potent [Arg(14),Lys(15)]nociceptin for cooperative induction of ORL1 receptor activation.

[Arg(14),Lys(15)]Nociceptin is a very potent for ORL1 receptor, showing a few times stronger binding activity and much more enhanced biological activity than endogenous nociceptin. This synergistic outcome has been suggested to be due to the interaction with the receptor aromatic and/or acidic amino acid residues crucial to receptor activation. In order to identify such receptor residues in the second ORL1 extracellular loop, we prepared a series of recombinant mutant receptors. The mutant receptor Gln205Ala was found to be as active as wild-type ORL1 for both nociceptin and [Arg(14),Lys(15)]nociceptin. In contrast, Asp206Ala and Tyr207Ala exhibited considerably reduced activity for [Arg(14),Lys(15)]nociceptin, exhibiting no synergistic activity enhancement. These results suggest that Asp206 and Tyr207 are directly involved in the interaction with nociceptin-[Arg(14),Lys(15)]. Trp208Ala was found to bind strongly both nociceptin and [Arg(14),Lys(15)]nociceptin, although it elicited no biological activity. All these results indicate that the consecutive amino acid residues Asp206, Tyr207, and Trp208 are critical to the activation of the ORL1 receptor, but not to nociceptin-binding.

Discriminatory synergistic effect of Trp-substitutions in superagonist [(Arg/Lys)(14), (Arg/Lys)(15)]nociceptin on ORL1 receptor binding and activation.

ORL1 is an endogenous G protein-coupled receptor for neuropeptide nociceptin. [(R/K)(14), (R/K)(15)]nociceptin is a superagonist that strongly activates the ORL1 receptor. We have previously found that substituting with Trp can reproduce the potentiation induced by Arg or Lys at position 14. In the present study, in order to ensure the effect of Trp-substitution on the activities of [(R/K)(14), (R/K)(15)]nociceptin, we synthesized [W(14), (R/K)(15)]nociceptin and [(R/K)(14), W(15)]nociceptin. [W(14), (R/K)(15)]nociceptin was found to exhibit threefold higher binding activity and 10-fold greater potency in a functional [(35)S]GTPgammaS functional assay as compared to wild-type nociceptin. However, when only Trp was placed in position 15, the resulting analogues, [(R/K)(14), W(15)]nociceptin, showed only a moderate enhancement of binding and biological activity (2-3 fold in both). These results indicate that the placement of Trp at position 14, unlike at position 15, enhances in a synergistic fashion the interaction of nociceptin with the ORL1 receptor. The results indicate that specific interactions feasible for Arg/Lys and Trp in common must be there for aromatic residues in ORL1, thus forming a cation/pi interaction or pi/pi hydrophobic interaction. The necessity for a favorable electrostatic interaction appears strict in position 15.

Synergistic effect of basic residues at positions 14-15 of nociceptin on binding affinity and receptor activation.

Nociceptin is an endogenous ligand that activates a G protein-coupled receptor ORL1 and contains two indispensable Arg-Lys (RK) dipeptide units at positions 8-9 and 12-13. By replacing an additional RK unit at positions 6-7, 10-11, 14-15, or 16-17, of the peptide we have identified the analog, [RK(14-15)]nociceptin as a superagonist. In fact, this peptide exhibits 3-fold higher binding affinity and 17-fold greater potency in a functional GTPgammaS-binding assay compared to wild-type nociceptin. Here, we have further investigated the role of basic residues in position 14-15. The replacement of three other possible basic dipeptides, KR, RR, and KK, into nociceptin at positions 14-15 resulted in similar enhancements of binding affinity (3-5-fold) and biological potency (10-12-fold in the GTPgammaS assay). However, when only a single basic residue (Arg or Lys) was replaced in either position 14 or 15, all the resulting analogs showed moderate enhancements of binding and biological activity (2-4-fold in both). These results indicate that the addition of basic charges in positions 14 and 15 enhance in a synergistic fashion the interaction of nociceptin with the receptor and only the simultaneous presence of two adjacent basic residues yields an optimal effect. This suggests that specific electrostatic interactions between both amino acids present in 14-15 and corresponding residues in the receptor are responsible for the enhancement of nociceptin activity.

Designed modification of partial agonist of ORL1 nociceptin receptor for conversion into highly potent antagonist.

Nociceptin is an endogenous agonist ligand of the ORL1 (opioid receptor-like 1) receptor, and its antagonist is a potential target of therapeutics for analgesic and antineuropathy drugs. Ac-RYYRIK-NH(2) is a hexapeptide isolated from the peptide library as an antagonist that inhibits the nociceptin activities mediated through ORL1. However, the structural elements required for this antagonist activity are still indeterminate. In the present study, we evaluated the importance of the acetyl-methyl group in receptor binding and activation, examining the peptides acyl-RYYRIK-NH(2), where acyl (R-CO) possesses a series of alkyl groups, R=C(n)H(2n+1) (n=0-5). The isovaleryl derivative with the C(4)H(9) (=(CH(3))(2)CHCH(2)-) group was found to reveal a high receptor-binding affinity and a strong antagonist nature. This peptide achieved a primary goal of eliminating the agonist activity of Ac-RYYRIK-NH(2) and producing pure antagonist activity.

Receptor binding characteristics of the endocrine disruptor bisphenol A for the human nuclear estrogen-related receptor gamma. Chief and corroborative hydrogen bonds of the bisphenol A phenol-hydroxyl group with Arg316 and Glu275 residues.

Bisphenol A, 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane, is an estrogenic endocrine disruptor that influences various physiological functions at very low doses, even though bisphenol A itself is ineffectual as a ligand for the estrogen receptor. We recently demonstrated that bisphenol A binds strongly to human estrogen-related receptor gamma, one of 48 human nuclear receptors. Bisphenol A functions as an inverse antagonist of estrogen-related receptor gamma to sustain the high basal constitutive activity of the latter and to reverse the deactivating inverse agonist activity of 4-hydroxytamoxifen. However, the intrinsic binding mode of bisphenol A remains to be clarified. In the present study, we report the binding potentials between the phenol-hydroxyl group of bisphenol A and estrogen-related receptor gamma residues Glu275 and Arg316 in the ligand-binding domain. By inducing mutations in other amino acids, we evaluated the change in receptor binding capability of bisphenol A. Wild-type estrogen-related receptor gamma-ligand-binding domain showed a strong binding ability (K(D) = 5.70 nm) for tritium-labeled [(3)H]bisphenol A. Simultaneous mutation to Ala at positions 275 and 316 resulted in an absolute inability to capture bisphenol A. However, individual substitutions revealed different degrees in activity reduction, indicating the chief importance of phenol-hydroxyl<-->Arg316 hydrogen bonding and the corroborative role of phenol-hydroxyl<-->Glu275 hydrogen bonding. The data obtained with other characteristic mutations suggested that these hydrogen bonds are conducive to the recruitment of phenol compounds by estrogen-related receptor gamma. These results clearly indicate that estrogen-related receptor gamma forms an appropriate structure presumably to adopt an unidentified endogenous ligand.

Differential receptor binding characteristics of consecutive phenylalanines in micro-opioid specific peptide ligand endomorphin-2.

Endogenous opioid peptides consist of a conserved amino acid residue of Phe(3) and Phe(4), although their binding modes for opioid receptors have not been elucidated in detail. Endomorphin-2, which is highly selective and specific for the mu opioid receptor, possesses two Phe residues at the consecutive positions 3 and 4. In order to clarify the role of Phe(3) and Phe(4) in binding to the mu receptor, we synthesized a series of analogs in which Phe(3) and Phe(4) were replaced by various amino acids. It was found that the aromaticity of the Phe-beta-phenyl groups of Phe(3) and Phe(4) is a principal determinant of how strongly it binds to the receptor, although better molecular hydrophobicity reinforces the activity. The receptor binding subsites of Phe(3) and Phe(4) of endomorphin-2 were found to exhibit different structural requirements. The results suggest that [Trp(3)]endomorphin-2 (native endomorphin-1) and endomorphin-2 bind to different receptor subclasses.