ABSTRACT
Antagonizing the action of the human nuclear xenobiotic receptor pregnane X receptor (PXR) may have important clinical implications in preventing drug-drug interactions and improving therapeutic efficacy. We provide evidence that a naturally occurring phytoestrogen, coumestrol, is an antagonist of the nuclear receptor PXR (NR1I2). In transient transfection assays, coumestrol was able to suppress the agonist effects of SR12813 on human PXR activity. PXR activity was assessed and correlated with effects on the metabolism of the anesthetic tribromoethanol and on gene expression in primary human hepatocytes. We found that coumestrol was able to suppress the effects of PXR agonists on the expression of the known PXR target genes, CYP3A4 and CYP2B6, in primary human hepatocytes as well as inhibit metabolism of tribromoethanol in humanized PXR mice. Coumestrol at concentrations above 1.0 microm competed in scintillation proximity assays with a labeled PXR agonist for binding to the ligand-binding cavity. However, mammalian two-hybrid assays and transient transcription data using ligand-binding-cavity mutant forms of PXR show that coumestrol also antagonizes coregulator recruitment. This effect is likely by binding to a surface outside the ligand-binding pocket. Taken together, these data imply that there are antagonist binding site(s) for coumestrol on the surface of PXR. These studies provide the basis for development of novel small molecule inhibitors of PXR with the ultimate goal of clinical applications toward preventing drug-drug interactions.
Subject(s)
Coumestrol/pharmacology , Phytoestrogens/pharmacology , Receptors, Steroid/antagonists & inhibitors , Animals , Aryl Hydrocarbon Hydroxylases/genetics , Aryl Hydrocarbon Hydroxylases/metabolism , Cell Line , Cells, Cultured , Constitutive Androstane Receptor , Coumestrol/chemistry , Coumestrol/metabolism , Cytochrome P-450 CYP2B6 , Cytochrome P-450 CYP3A/genetics , Cytochrome P-450 CYP3A/metabolism , Ethanol/analogs & derivatives , Ethanol/metabolism , Female , Gene Expression/drug effects , Histone Acetyltransferases/genetics , Histone Acetyltransferases/metabolism , Humans , Immunohistochemistry , Mass Spectrometry , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Mice, Transgenic , Microscopy, Confocal , Nuclear Receptor Coactivator 1 , Oxidoreductases, N-Demethylating/genetics , Oxidoreductases, N-Demethylating/metabolism , Phytoestrogens/chemistry , Phytoestrogens/metabolism , Pregnane X Receptor , Protein Binding , Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/genetics , Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism , Receptors, Steroid/genetics , Receptors, Steroid/metabolism , Transcription Factors/genetics , Transcription Factors/metabolism , Two-Hybrid System TechniquesABSTRACT
The human nuclear receptor pregnane X receptor (PXR) responds to a wide variety of potentially harmful chemicals and coordinates the expression of genes central to xenobiotic and endobiotic metabolism. Structural studies reveal that the PXR ligand binding domain (LBD) uses a novel sequence insert to form a homodimer unique to the nuclear receptor superfamily. Terminal beta-strands from each monomeric LBD interact in an ideal antiparallel fashion to bury potentially exposed surface beta-strands, generating a 10-stranded intermolecular beta-sheet. Conserved tryptophan and tyrosine residues lock across the dimer interface and provide the first tryptophan-zipper (Trp-Zip) interaction observed in a native protein. We show using analytical ultracentrifugation that the PXR LBD forms a homodimer in solution. We further find that removal of the interlocking aromatic residues eliminates dimer formation but does not affect PXR's ability to interact with DNA, RXRalpha, or ligands. Disruption of the homodimer significantly reduces receptor activity in transient transfection experiments, however, and effectively eliminates the receptor's recruitment of the transcriptional coactivator SRC-1 both in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these results suggest that the unique Trp-Zip-mediated PXR homodimer plays a role in the function of this nuclear xenobiotic receptor.
Subject(s)
Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/chemistry , Receptors, Steroid/chemistry , Tryptophan/chemistry , DNA/chemistry , DNA/metabolism , Dimerization , Histone Acetyltransferases , Humans , Ligands , Nuclear Receptor Coactivator 1 , Pregnane X Receptor , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/genetics , Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism , Receptors, Steroid/genetics , Receptors, Steroid/metabolism , Retinoid X Receptor alpha/chemistry , Retinoid X Receptor alpha/metabolism , Transcription Factors/chemistry , Transcription Factors/metabolism , UltracentrifugationABSTRACT
A series of tetrahydrobenzofuranyl and tetrahydrobenzothienyl propenoic acids that showed potent agonist activity against RXRalpha were synthesized via a structure-based design approach. Among the compounds studied, 46a,b showed not only very good potency against RXRalpha (K(i) = 6 nM) but was also found to be greater than 167-fold selective vs RARalpha (K(i) > 1000 nM). This compound profiled out as a full agonist in a cell-based transient transfection assay (EC(50) = 3 nM). The two antipodes were separated via chiral chromatography, and 46b was found to be 40-fold more potent than 46a. Interestingly, cocrystallization of 46a,b with the RXRalpha protein generated a liganded structure whereby the (S)-antipode was found in the binding pocket. Given orally in db/db mice or ZDF rats, 46a,b showed a significant glucose-lowering effect and an increase in liver mass. Triglycerides decreased significantly in db/db mice but increased in the ZDF rats. A dose-dependent decrease of nonesterified free fatty acids was seen in ZDF rats but not in db/db mice. These differences indicate a species specific effect of RXR agonists on lipid metabolism.
