Dynamics of Matricellular Protein Levels in Blood Predict Recovery in Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Tuberculosis Coinfection.

Chronic immune activation in tuberculosis (TB) associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (HIV/TB) modifies their clinical course. We prospectively measured osteopontin (OPN), full-length galectin-9 (FL-Gal9), and total-Gal9 (T-Gal9) levels in 32 patients with HIV/TB coinfection treated with anti-tuberculosis and antiretroviral therapies over 6-18 months to determine the amelioration of inflammatory conditions in response to the therapies. We observed a significant time-dependent decrease in FL-Gal9 in both pulmonary TB (PTB, n = 20) and extrapulmonary TB (EPTB, n = 12) patients. The levels of T-Gal9, OPN, and CRP decreased significantly after treatment in only PTB patients. We calculated the inflammatory score (INS) indicating immunologic recovery based on the decline in OPN, FL-Gal9, T-Gal9, and CRP levels. Baseline levels of T-Gal9 and OPN positively correlated with INS in all TB and only PTB patients, respectively, indicating that their levels predict better recovery. In contrast, FL-Gal9 levels at the second visit negatively correlated with INS in EPTB patients. The decrease rate in OPN levels at the second visit also correlated positively with INS in PTB patients. Women showed a higher INS and lower levels of FL-Gal9 than men. The patients with moderate grade severity on chest X-ray had higher CD4 cell numbers than those with limited grade severity. Monitoring these markers will help to predict and assess the response to therapy as well as to devise strategies to reduce the complications caused by chronic immune activation in patients with HIV/TB coinfection.

Plasma N-Cleaved Galectin-9 Is a Surrogate Marker for Determining the Severity of COVID-19 and Monitoring the Therapeutic Effects of Tocilizumab.

Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is known to contribute to antiviral responses in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Increased circulating Gal-9 in COVID-19 is associated with COVID-19 severity. In a while, the linker-peptide of Gal-9 is susceptible to proteolysis that can cause the change or loss of Gal-9 activity. Here, we measured plasma levels of N-cleaved-Gal9, which is Gal9 carbohydrate-recognition domain at the N-terminus (NCRD) with attached truncated linker peptide that differs in length depending on the type of proteases, in COVID-19. We also investigated the time course of plasma N-cleaved-Gal9 levels in severe COVID-19 treated with tocilizumab (TCZ). As a result, we observed an increase in plasma N-cleaved-Gal9 levels in COVID-19 and its higher levels in COVID-19 with pneumonia compared to the mild cases (healthy: 326.1 pg/mL, mild: 698.0 pg/mL, and with pneumonia: 1570 pg/mL). N-cleaved-Gal9 levels were associated with lymphocyte counts, C-reactive protein (CRP), soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R), D-dimer, and ferritin levels, and ratio of percutaneous oxygen saturation to fraction of inspiratory oxygen (S/F ratio) in COVID-19 with pneumonia and discriminated different severity groups with high accuracy (area under the curve (AUC): 0.9076). Both N-cleaved-Gal9 and sIL-2R levels were associated with plasma matrix metalloprotease (MMP)-9 levels in COVID-19 with pneumonia. Furthermore, a decrease in N-cleaved-Gal9 levels was associated with a decrease of sIL-2R levels during TCZ treatment. N-cleaved-Gal9 levels showed a moderate accuracy (AUC: 0.8438) for discriminating the period before TCZ from the recovery phase. These data illustrate that plasma N-cleaved-Gal9 is a potential surrogate marker for assessing COVID-19 severity and the therapeutic effects of TCZ.

Both Full-Length and Protease-Cleaved Products of Osteopontin Are Elevated in Infectious Diseases.

Circulating full-length osteopontin (FL-OPN) is elevated in plasma from patients with various infectious diseases, such as adult T-cell leukemia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB), hepatitis virus infection, leptospirosis, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), AIDS/TB, and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Proteolysis of OPN by thrombin, matrix metalloproteases, caspase 8/3, cathepsin D, plasmin, and enterokinase generates various cleaved OPNs with a variety of bioactivities by binding to different target cells. Moreover, OPN is susceptible to gradual proteolysis. During inflammation, one of the cleaved fragments, N-terminal thrombin-cleaved OPN (trOPN or OPN-Arg168 [OPN-R]), induces dendritic cell (DC) adhesion. Further cleavage by carboxypeptidase B2 or carboxypeptidase N removes Arg168 from OPN-R to OPN-Leu167 (OPN-L). Consequently, OPN-L decreases DC adhesion. In particular, the differences in plasma level over time are observed between FL-OPN and its cleaved OPNs during inflammation. We found that the undefined OPN levels (mixture of FL-OPN and cleaved OPN) were elevated in plasma and reflected the pathology of TB and COVID-19 rather than FL-OPN. These infections are associated with elevated levels of various proteases. Inhibition of the cleavage or the activities of cleaved products may improve the outcome of the therapy. Research on the metabolism of OPN is expected to create new therapies against infectious diseases.

Blood Levels of Galectin-9, an Immuno-Regulating Molecule, Reflect the Severity for the Acute and Chronic Infectious Diseases.

Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is a ß-galactoside-binding lectin capable of promoting or suppressing the progression of infectious diseases. This protein is susceptible to cleavage of its linker-peptides by several proteases, and the resulting cleaved forms, N-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) and C-terminal CRD, bind to various glycans. It has been suggested that full-length (FL)-Gal-9 and the truncated (Tr)-Gal-9s could exert different functions from one another via their different glycan-binding activities. We propose that FL-Gal-9 regulates the pathogenesis of infectious diseases, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, HIV co-infected with opportunistic infection (HIV/OI), dengue, malaria, leptospirosis, and tuberculosis (TB). We also suggest that the blood levels of FL-Gal-9 reflect the severity of dengue, malaria, and HIV/OI, and those of Tr-Gal-9 markedly reflect the severity of HIV/OI. Recently, matrix metallopeptidase-9 (MMP-9) was suggested to be an indicator of respiratory failure from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) as well as useful for differentiating pulmonary from extrapulmonary TB. The protease cleavage of FL-Gal-9 may lead to uncontrolled hyper-immune activation, including a cytokine storm. In summary, Gal-9 has potential to reflect the disease severity for the acute and chronic infectious diseases.