Hydrophobic Inorganic Oxide Pigments via Polymethylhydrosiloxane Grafting: Dispersion in Aqueous Solution at Extraordinarily High Solids Concentrations.

Building on the recent demonstration of aqueous-dispersible hydrophobic pigments that retain their surface hydrophobicity even after drying, we demonstrate the synthesis of surface-modified Ti-Pure R-706 (denoted R706) titanium dioxide-based pigments, consisting of a thin (one to three monolayers) grafted polymethylhydrosiloxane (PMHS) coating, which (i) are hydrophobic in the dry state according to capillary rise and dynamic vapor sorption measurements and (ii) form stable aqueous dispersions at solid contents exceeding 75 wt % (43 vol %), without added dispersant, displaying similar rheology to R706 native oxide pigments at 70 wt % (37 vol %) consisting of an optimal amount of conventional polyanionic dispersant (0.3 wt % on pigment basis). The surface-modified pigments have been characterized via 29Si and 13C cross-polarization/magic angle spinning solid-state NMR spectroscopy; infrared spectroscopy; thermogravimetric and elemental analyses; and ζ potential measurements. On the basis of these data, the stability of the surface-modified PMHS-R706 aqueous dispersions is attributed to steric effects, as a result of grafted PMHS strands on the R706 surface, and depends on the chaotropic nature of the base used during PMHS condensation to the pigment/polysiloxane interface. The lack of water wettability of the surface-modified oxide particles in their dry state translates to improved water-barrier properties in coatings produced with these surface-modified pigment particles. The synthetic approach appears general as demonstrated by its application to various inorganic-oxide pigment particles.

Stable Aqueous Dispersions of Hydrophobically Modified Titanium Dioxide Pigments through Polyanion Adsorption: Synthesis, Characterization, and Application in Coatings.

Polyanion dispersants stabilize aqueous dispersions of hydrophilic (native) inorganic oxide particles, including pigments currently used in paints, which are used at an annual scale of 3 million metric tons. While obtaining stable aqueous dispersions of hydrophobically modified particles has been desired for the promise of improved film performance and water barrier properties, it has until now required either prohibitively complex polyanions, which represent a departure from conventional dispersants, or multistep syntheses based on hybrid-material constructs. Here, we demonstrate the aqueous dispersion of alkylsilane-capped inorganic oxide pigments with conventional polycarboxylate dispersants, such as carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and polyacrylate, as well as a commercial anionic copolymer. Contact-angle measurements demonstrate that the hydrophobically modified pigments retain significant hydrophobic character even after adsorbing polyanion dispersants. CMC adsorption isotherms demonstrate 92% greater polyanion loading on trimethylsilyl modified hydrophobic particles relative to native oxide at pH 8. However, consistent with prior literature, hydrophobically modified silica particles adsorb polyanions very weakly under these conditions. These data suggest that Lewis acidic heteroatoms such as Al(3+) sites on the pigment surface are necessary for polyanion adsorption. The adsorbed polyanions increase the dispersion stability and zeta potential of the particles. Based on particle sedimentation under centrifugal force, the hydrophobically modified pigments possess greater dispersion stability with polyanions than the corresponding native hydroxylated particles. The polyanions also assist in the aqueous wetting of the hydrophobic particles, facilitating the transition from a dry powder into an aqueous dispersion of primary particles using less agitation than the native hydroxylated pigment. The application of aqueous dispersions of hydrophobically modified oxide particles to waterborne coatings leads to films that display lower water uptake at high relative humidities and greater hydrophilic stain resistances. This improved film performance with hydrophobically modified pigments is the result of better association between latex polymer and pigment in the dry film.

Solvent dependent assembly of lanthanide metallacrowns using building blocks with incompatible symmetry preferences.

Solvent dependence in the assembly of coordination driven macrocycles is a poorly understood phenomenon. This work presents the solvent dependent assembly of 8 lanthanide metallacrowns (LnMCs) in solution using picoline hydroxamic acid (picHA), Zn(II), and Ln(III) ions. ESI-MS and single-crystal X-ray crystallography reveal the selective assembly of LnZn4(picHA)4(3+), LnZn5(picHA)5(3+), LnZn8(picHA)8(3+), LnZn12(picHA)12(3+), LnZn16(picHA)16(3+), Ln2Zn3(picHA)4(4+), Ln2Zn7-9(picHA)8-10, and Ln4Zn4-5(picHA)8-9 complexes in five different solvents. The coordination preferences of the hard Ln(III) ion and relatively soft Zn(II) ion dictate the solvent selectivity in this system. The LnMCs assemble with open or closed Zn(II) and/or Ln(III) coordination sites based on the behavior of the solvent as an ancillary ligand. This structural promiscuity is attributed to the symmetry incompatible building blocks, which generate assemblies with substantial geometric strain such that no clear thermodynamic minimum exists between the different LnMCs. These LnMCs assemble from a Zn5(picHA)4(2+) intermediate, which is monitored using (1)H NMR and ESI-MS to assess the stability of the complexes and possible assembly pathways based on kinetic considerations. LnMC assemblies that can be generated through central metal substitution reactions such as the LnZn4(picHA)4(3+), LnZn5(picHA)5(3+), and LnZn8(picHA)8(3+) effectively reach equilibrium after 24 h at room temperature. In contrast, LnMCs that must disrupt the Zn5L4(2+) structure to assemble, such as the LnZn16L16(3+), reach equilibrium after heating for 24 h at 65 °C. A pathway for LnMC assembly is presented where the Zn5L4(2+) is the key intermediate based on these reaction data and shared structural motifs in the complexes. These results correlate solvent dependent assembly to the building block geometry, highlighting synthetic approaches for generating novel complexes.

Highly emitting near-infrared lanthanide "encapsulated sandwich" metallacrown complexes with excitation shifted toward lower energy.

Near-infrared (NIR) luminescent lanthanide complexes hold great promise for practical applications, as their optical properties have several complementary advantages over organic fluorophores and semiconductor nanoparticles. The fundamental challenge for lanthanide luminescence is their sensitization through suitable chromophores. The use of the metallacrown (MC) motif is an innovative strategy to arrange several organic sensitizers at a well-controlled distance from a lanthanide cation. Herein we report a series of lanthanide "encapsulated sandwich" MC complexes of the form Ln3+ [12-MC(Zn(II),quinHA)-4]2[24-MC(Zn(II),quinHA)-8] (Ln3+ [Zn(II)MC(quinHA)]) in which the MC framework is formed by the self-assembly of Zn2+ ions and tetradentate chromophoric ligands based on quinaldichydroxamic acid (quinHA). A first-generation of luminescent MCs was presented previously but was limited due to excitation wavelengths in the UV. We report here that through the design of the chromophore of the MC assembly, we have significantly shifted the absorption wavelength toward lower energy (450 nm). In addition to this near-visible inter- and/or intraligand charge transfer absorption, Ln3+ [Zn(II)MC(quinHA)] exhibits remarkably high quantum yields, long luminescence lifetimes (CD3OD; Yb3+, QLn(L) = 2.88(2)%, τobs = 150.7(2) µs; Nd3+, QLn(L) = 1.35(1)%, τobs = 4.11(3) µs; Er3+, QLn(L) = 3.60(6)·10­2%, τobs = 11.40(3) µs), and excellent photostability. Quantum yields of Nd3+ and Er3+ MCs in the solid state and in deuterated solvents, upon excitation at low energy, are the highest values among NIR-emitting lanthanide complexes containing C­H bonds. The versatility of the MC strategy allows modifications in the excitation wavelength and absorptivity through the appropriate design of the ligand sensitizer, providing a highly efficient platform with tunable properties.

Selective anion encapsulation in solid-state Ln(III)[15-metallacrown-5]3+ compartments through secondary sphere interactions.

Secondary sphere interactions from proximal phenyl side chains control the anion selectivity of dimeric Ln(III)[15-MC(Cu(II),α-aminoHA)-5](3+) metallocavitands. CH-O interactions, which are only possible with certain side chains, are sufficient for overcoming an intrinsic energy barrier to binding saturated dicarboxylates in hydrophobic compartments.

Isolation of elusive tetranuclear and pentanuclear M(II)-hydroximate intermediates in the assembly of lanthanide [15-metallacrown-5] complexes.

Two intermediates in the assembly of lanthanide metallacrowns (MCs) of divalent transition metals and ligands in the picoline hydroxamic acid (picHA)/α-amino hydroxamic acid family were synthesized and crystallographically characterized. Structures of the elusive M(II)[12-MC(M(II),L)-4](2+) were obtained with M = Ni, Zn and L = picHA, quinaldic hydroxamic acid. Consistent with previous calculations, the complex is highly concave, particularly with Zn(II). ESI-MS and (1)H NMR reveal that the complexes retain their structure in solution. The Zn(II) analogue reacts with Ln(III) ions to form Ln(III)[15-MC(Zn(II),picHA)-5](3+) in pyridine. The greater stability of Zn(II)[12-MC(Zn(II),picHA)-4](2+) relative to the Cu(II) and Ni(II) analogues is inferred and attributed to the square-pyramidal Zn(II) ions being complementary with the concave MC topology. A Zn4(picHA)2(OAc)4(DMF)2 species bearing a tetranuclear [6-MC(Zn(II),picHA)-2] motif was also isolated. A mechanism for M(II)[12-MC(M(II),L)-4](2+) formation is proposed on the basis of structural analysis of tetranuclear [6-MC(M(II),L)-2] complexes. These results contribute to the goal of controlling the reactivity of intermediates in the assembly of lanthanide MCs, and coordination driven macrocycles in general, to prepare complexes with greater stability or enhanced physical properties.

Enhanced guest affinity and enantioselectivity through variation of the Gd3+ [15-metallacrown-5] side chain.

Supramolecular hosts that bind guests reversibly are investigated for potential catalysis and separations applications. Chiral Ln(3+)[15-Metallacrown-5] metallocavitands bind carboxylate guests in hydrophobic cavities generated by their ligand side chains. A thermodynamic study on Gd(3+)[15-metallacrown-5] hosts with ligands bearing phenyl side chains containing 0, 1, and 2 methylene spacers (1-pgHA, 1-pheHA, 1-hpheHA, respectively) is presented to quantitatively assess how guest affinity and chiral selectivity can be enhanced through changes to the ligand side chain. Guest binding affinity was measured with cyclic voltammetry using ferrocene carboxylate as a redox probe. K(a) values between ferrocene carboxylate and 1-pgHA and 1-pheHA were 4800 ± 400 M(-1) and 4400 ± 700 M(-1), respectively. Significantly stronger binding affinity of 12,100 ± 700 M(-1) was measured with 1-hpheHA, a result of the longer side-chains more completely encapsulating the guest. A similar trend was observed with benzoate. The side chain also influenced enantioselectivity, as K(S)/K(R) values of up to 2.2 ± 0.6 were measured. The side chain dependent guest binding supports the development of highly selective Ln(3+)[15-Metallacrown-5] hosts for use in catalysis and separations through careful ligand design.

Influencing the size and anion selectivity of dimeric Ln(3+)[15-metallacrown-5] compartments through systematic variation of the host side chains and central metal.

Dimeric Ln(3+)[15-metallacrown-5] compartments selectively recognize carboxylates through guest binding to host metal ions and intermolecular interactions with the phenyl side chains. A systematic study is presented on how the size, selectivity, and number of encapsulated guests in the dimeric containers is influenced by the Ln(3+)[15-metallacrown(Cu(II))-5] ligand side chain and central metal. Compartments of varying heights were assembled from metallacrowns with S-phenylglycine hydroxamic acid (pgHA), S-phenylalanine hydroxamic acid (pheHA), and S-homophenylalanine hydroxamic acid (hpheHA) ligands. Guests that were examined include the fully deprotonated forms of terephthalic acid, isonicotinic acid, and bithiophene dicarboxylic acid (btDC). X-ray crystallography reveals that the side-chain length constrains the maximum and minimum length guest that can be encapsulated in the compartment. Compartments with heights ranging from 9.7 to 15.2 Å are formed with different phenyl side chains that complex 4.3-9.2 Å long guests. Up to five guests are accommodated in Ln(3+)[15-metallacrown(Cu(II))-5] compartments depending on steric effects from the host side chains. The nine-coordinate La(3+) central metal promotes the encapsulation of multiple guests, while the eight-coordinate Gd(3+) typically binds only one dicarboxylate. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry reveals that the dimerization phenomenon occurs beyond the solid state, suggesting that these containers can be utilized in solid-state and solution applications.

Gd(III)[15-metallacrown-5] recognition of chiral α-amino acid analogues.

Chiral Ln(III)[15-metallacrown-5] complexes with phenyl side chains have been shown to encapsulate aromatic carboxylates reversibly in their hydrophobic cavities. Given the importance of selective guest binding for applications of supramolecular containers in synthesis, separations, and materials design, the affinity of Gd(III)[15-metallacrown(Cu(II), L-pheHA)-5] hosts for a series of chiral carboxylate guests with varying substitutions on the α-carbon (phenylalanine, N-acetyl-phenylalanine, phenyllactate, mandelate, methoxyphenylacetate) has been investigated. Differential binding of S- and R-phenylalanine was revealed by X-ray crystallography, as the S-enantiomer exclusively forms associative hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms in the metallacrown ring. Selective guest binding in solution was assessed with isothermal titration calorimetry, which measures the sequential guest binding in the hydrophobic cavity first and the hydrophilic face of the host, and a cyclic voltammetry assay, which quantifies guest binding strength in the hydrophobic cavity of the host exclusively. In solution, the Gd(III)[15-metallacrown(Cu(II), L-pheHA)-5] hydrophobic cavity exhibits modest chiral selectivity for enantiomers of phenylalanine (K(S)/K(R) = 2.4) and mandelate (K(S)/K(R) = 1.22). Weak binding constants of ∼100 M(-1) were measured for neutral and -1 charged carboxylates with hydrophilic functional groups (ammonium, N-acetyl, methyl ether). Weaker binding relative to the unsubstituted guests is attributed to unfavorable interactions between the hydrophilic functionalities of the guest and the hydrophobic cavity of the host. In contrast, binding constants greater than 2000 M(-1) were measured for α-hydroxy analogues phenyllactate and mandelate. The significantly increased affinity likely arises from the guests being bound as a -2 anion upon metal-assisted deprotonation in the Gd(III)[15-metallacrown(Cu(II), l-pheHA)-5] cavity. It is established that guest binding affinity in the hydrophobic cavity of the host follows the general trend of neutral zwitterion < monoanion < dianion, with hydrophilic functional groups decreasing the binding affinity. These results have broad implications for the development of metallacrowns as supramolecular catalysts or in chiral separations.

Voltammetric characterization of redox-inactive guest binding to Ln(III)[15-Metallacrown-5] hosts based on competition with a redox probe.

A novel competitive binding assay was implemented to monitor the binding of a redox inactive substrate to a redox inactive metallacrown host based on its competition with ferrocene carboxylate (FcC(-)) using cyclic voltammetry (CV). First, the binding of FcC(-) to Ln(III)[15-MC(Cu(II),N,L-pheHA)-5] (LnMC) hosts was characterized by cyclic voltammetry. It was shown that the voltammetric half wave potentials, E(1/2), shifted to more positive potentials upon the addition of LnMC. The explicit dependence of E(1/2) with the concentration of LnMC was used to determine the association constants for the complex. The FcC(-) binding strength decreased with larger central lanthanide metals in the LnMC hosts, and substantially weaker binding was observed with La(III). X-ray crystallography revealed that the hydrophobic host cavity incompletely encapsulated FcC(-) when the guest was bound to the nine-coordinate La(III), suggesting the LnMC's ligand side chains play a substantial role in guest recognition. With knowledge of the MC-FcC(-) solution thermodynamics, the binding affinity of a redox inactive guest was then assessed. Addition of sodium benzoate to a LnMC and FcC(-) mixture resulted in E(1/2) shifting back to the value observed for FcC(-) in the absence of LnMC. The association constants between benzoate and LnMC's were calculated via the competitive binding approach. Comparison with literature values suggests this novel assay is a viable method for determining association constants for host-guest systems that exhibit the proper electrochemical behavior. Notably, this CV competitive binding approach does not require the preparation of a modified electrode or a tethered guest, and thus can be generalized to a number of host-guest systems.