Targeting dendritic cells with antigen via dendritic cell-associated promoters.

The induction of tumor-specific immune responses is largely dependent on the ability of dendritic cells (DCs) to present tumor-associated antigens to T lymphocytes. Therefore, we investigated the use of DC-associated promoter-driven genetic vaccines to specifically target DC in vivo. Restricted expression of vaccine-encoding genes in DC should enhance specificity and improves their safety for clinical applications. Hereto, 3-5 kb upstream sequences of the murine genes encoding CD11c, DC-SIGN, DC-STAMP and Langerin were isolated, characterized and subcloned into enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) reporter constructs. Upon electroporation, EGFP was expressed in DC cell lines, but not in other cell lines, confirming DC-restricted promoter activity. When these promoters were cloned into a construct upstream of the gene for ovalbumin (OVA), it appeared that DC-STAMP promoter-driven expression of OVA (pDCSTAMP/OVA) in DC yielded the most efficient OVA-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses in vitro. Administration of pDC-STAMP/OVA in vivo, using the tattoo gun vaccination system, evoked specific immune responses as evidenced in a mouse tumor model. Adoptively transferred pDC-STAMP/OVA-transfected DCs induced strong CD8+ T-cell proliferation in vivo. These experiments demonstrate that our DC-directed promoter constructs are potential tools to restrict antigen expression in DC and could be implemented to modulate DC function by the introduction of relevant proteins.

[Sensitive to change: neuroendocrinologic aspects of depression in women]. / Gevoelig voor verandering Neuro-endocrinologische aspecten van depressie bij vrouwen.

BACKGROUND: Depression is more prevalent among women than among men. There are several possible explanations for this. There are indications that the aetiology of this difference in prevalence has to do with fluctuations in the oestrogen level, which are a feature of the female reproductive system. The influence of oestrogens on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis may play an important role. AIM: To cast light on the deregulating influence of oestrogen on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. This deregulation could lead to depression in a subgroup of women with a neuroendocrine stress response that is sensitive to hormonal fluctuations. METHOD: PubMed was used to review the literature on the basis of the key words 'depression', 'estrogen', 'gender', 'gonadal hormones', 'hpa axis', 'stress' and 'women'. RESULTS: Deregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis plays a role in the aetiology of major depression. On the one hand, oestrogens stimulate the activity of this system. On the other hand, a lowering of the endogenous oestrogen level seems to be accompanied by reduced activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. CONCLUSION: Changing oestrogen levels characterise the female reproductive system. It is these changing levels--not the absolute oestrogen level--which have the potential to deregulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Identification of intermediates and enzymes involved in the early steps of artemisinin biosynthesis in Artemisia annua.

An important group of antimalarial drugs consists of the endoperoxide sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin and its derivatives. Only little is known about the biosynthesis of artemisinin in Artemisia annua L., particularly about the early enzymatic steps between amorpha-4,11-diene and dihydroartemisinic acid. Analyses of the terpenoids from A. annua leaves and gland secretory cells revealed the presence of the oxygenated amorpha-4,11-diene derivatives artemisinic alcohol, dihydroartemisinic alcohol, artemisinic aldehyde, dihydroartemisinic aldehyde and dihydroartemisinic acid. We also demonstrated the presence of a number of biosynthetic enzymes such as the amorpha-4,11-diene synthase and the--so far unknown--amorpha-4,11-diene hydroxylase as well as artemisinic alcohol and dihydroartemisinic aldehyde dehydrogenase activities in both leaves and glandular trichomes. From these results, we hypothesise that the early steps in artemisinin biosynthesis involve amorpha-4,11-diene hydroxylation to artemisinic alcohol, followed by oxidation to artemisinic aldehyde, reduction of the C11-C13 double bond to dihydroartemisinic aldehyde and oxidation to dihydroartemisinic acid.

Occurrence, biological activity and synthesis of drimane sesquiterpenoids.

In this review the names, structures and occurrence of all new drimanes and rearranged drimanes which have been published between January 1990 and January 2003 have been collected. Subjects that have been treated are biosynthesis, analysis, biological activities, with special attention to cytotoxic activity and antifeedant and insecticidal activity and mode of action. An important part of the review deals with the synthesis of drimanes. This part has been subdivided into syntheses by transformation of natural products, syntheses starting from chiral compounds obtained by enzymatic resolution, syntheses by cationic polyolefin cyclizations, syntheses from trans-decalones, syntheses by radical cyclizations and syntheses by cycloaddition reactions. The review contains about 350 references.

Sexual information seeking on web search engines.

Sexual information seeking is an important element within human information behavior. Seeking sexually related information on the Internet takes many forms and channels, including chat rooms discussions, accessing Websites or searching Web search engines for sexual materials. The study of sexual Web queries provides insight into sexually-related information-seeking behavior, of value to Web users and providers alike. We qualitatively analyzed queries from logs of 1,025,910 Alta Vista and AlltheWeb.com Web user queries from 2001. We compared the differences in sexually-related Web searching between Alta Vista and AlltheWeb.com users. Differences were found in session duration, query outcomes, and search term choices. Implications of the findings for sexual information seeking are discussed.

Cystatin M/E expression is restricted to differentiated epidermal keratinocytes and sweat glands: a new skin-specific proteinase inhibitor that is a target for cross-linking by transglutaminase.

Using serial analysis of gene expression on cultured human keratinocytes we found high expression levels of genes putatively involved in host protection and defense, such as proteinase inhibitors and antimicrobial proteins. One of these expressed genes was the recently discovered cysteine proteinase inhibitor cystatin M/E that has not been characterized so far at the protein level with respect to tissue distribution and additional biologic properties. Here we report that cystatin M/E has a tissue-specific expression pattern in which high expression levels are restricted to the stratum granulosum of normal human skin, the stratum granulosum/spinosum of psoriatic skin, and the secretory coils of eccrine sweat glands. Low expression levels were found in the nasal cavity. The presence of cystatin M/E in skin and the lack of expression in a variety of other tissues was verified both at the protein level by immunohistochemistry or western blotting, and at the mRNA level by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction or northern blotting. Using biotinylated hexapeptide probes we found that cystatin M/E is an efficient substrate for tissue type transglutaminase and for transglutaminases extracted from stratum corneum, and that it acts as an acyl acceptor but not as an acyl donor. Western blot analysis showed that recombinant cystatin M/E could be cross-linked to a variety of proteins extracted from stratum corneum. In vitro, we found that cystatin M/E expression in cultured keratinocytes is upregulated at the mRNA and protein level, upon induction of differentiation. We demonstrate that cystatin M/E, which has a putative signal peptide, is indeed a secreted protein and is found in vitro in culture supernatant and in vivo in human sweat by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or western blotting. Cystatin M/E showed moderate inhibition of cathepsin B but was not active against cathepsin C. We speculate that cystatin M/E is unlikely to be a physiologically relevant inhibitor of intracellular lysosomal cysteine proteinases but rather functions as an inhibitor of self and nonself cysteine proteinases that remain to be identified.

Serial analysis of gene expression in differentiated cultures of human epidermal keratinocytes.

Keratinocyte gene expression was surveyed more comprehensively than before, by means of serial analysis of gene expression. A total of 25,694 tags derived from expressed mRNA, were analyzed in a model for normal differentiation and in a model where cultured keratinocytes were stimulated for a prolonged period of time with tumor necrosis factor-alpha, thus mimicking aberrant differentiation in the context of cutaneous inflammation. Serial analysis of gene expression revealed many transcripts derived from unknown genes and a large number of genes that are not known to be expressed in keratinocytes; furthermore, these data provide quantitative information about the relative abundance of transcripts, allowing the identification of differentially expressed genes. A major part of the identified transcripts accounted for genes involved in energy metabolism and protein synthesis. A large proportion of all transcripts (6%) corresponded to genes associated with terminal differentiation and barrier formation. Another highly expressed functional group of genes (2% of all transcripts) corresponded to proteins involved in host protection such as antimicrobial proteins and proteinase inhibitors. Three of these genes were not known to be expressed in keratinocytes, and some were upregulated after prolonged tumor necrosis factor-alpha exposure. Our data on expressed genes in keratinocytes are consistent with the known function of human epidermis, and provide a first step to generate a transcriptome of human keratinocytes.

Amorpha-4,11-diene synthase catalyses the first probable step in artemisinin biosynthesis.

The endoperoxide sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin and its derivatives are a promising new group of drugs against malaria. Artemisinin is a constituent of the annual herb Artemisia annua L. So far only the later steps in artemisinin biosynthesis--from artemisinic acid--have been elucidated and the expected olefinic sesquiterpene intermediate has never been demonstrated. In pentane extracts of A. annua leaves we detected a sesquiterpene with the mass spectrum of amorpha-4,11-diene. Synthesis of amorpha-4,11-diene from artemisinic acid confirmed the identity. In addition we identified several sesquiterpene synthases of which one of the major activities catalysed the formation of amorpha-4,11-diene from farnesyl diphosphate. This enzyme was partially purified and shows the typical characteristics of sesquiterpene synthases, such as a broad pH optimum around 6.5-7.0, a molecular mass of 56 kDa, and a K(m) of 0.6 microM. The structure and configuration of amorpha-4,11-diene, its low content in A. annua and the high activity of amorpha-4,11-diene synthase all support that amorpha-4,11-diene is the likely olefinic sesquiterpene intermediate in the biosynthesis of artemisinin.

Sequence and transcriptional analysis of the ubiquitin gene cluster in the genome of Spodoptera exigua nucleopolyhedrovirus.

The nucleotide sequence of a 1200 bp DNA fragment of Spodoptera exigua nucleopolyhedrovirus (SeMNPV) was determined. This sequence contained a cluster of two open reding frames (ORFs), one coding for a viral ubiquitin (v-ubi) and another with homology to orf2 of Autographa californica (Ac) MNPV and Orgyia pseudotsugata (Op) MNPV. The vubi ORF is 240 nucleotides (nt) long, potentially encoding a protein of 80 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 9.4 kDa. The amino acid sequence of the v-ubi gene in SeMNPV has 75% and 81.6% identity with the v-ubi gene of AcMNPV and OpMNPV and approximately 84% with cellular ubiquitins. Northern blot analysis revealed three major small transcripts late in infection, of about 690, 550 and 400 nt long. Primer extension analysis showed that transcription started from within two consensus late promoter elements (TAAG), located at positions -6 and -30. The start site at position -4/-5 precedes the shortest leader reported to date for a baculovirus gene. The other ORF, xb187, was identified in the opposite orientation immediately upstream of the v-ubi gene. This ORF potentially encodes a 22 kDa protein with unknown function and about 60% amino acid similarity to the products of the orf2 genes of AcMNPV and OpMNPV. The SeMNPV xb187 ORF is transcribed late in infection via two transcripts, 1.2 kb and 770 nt long. The v-ubi-xb187 gene cluster is located at map unit (m.u.) 89 on the genome of SeMNPV. This is different from the position of an identical cluster in the AcMNPV and OpMNPV genomes, located at relative m.u. 20.