Causes of death after emergency general surgical admission: population cohort study of mortality.

BACKGROUND: A substantial number of patients treated in emergency general surgery (EGS) services die within a year of discharge. The aim of this study was to analyse causes of death and their relationship to discharge diagnoses, in patients who died within 1 year of discharge from an EGS service in Scotland. METHODS: This was a population cohort study of all patients with an EGS admission in Scotland, UK, in the year before death. Patients admitted to EGS services between January 2008 and December 2017 were included. Data regarding patient admissions were obtained from the Information Services Division in Scotland, and cross-referenced to death certificate data, obtained from the National Records of Scotland. RESULTS: Of 507 308 patients admitted to EGS services, 7917 died while in hospital, and 52 094 within 1 year of discharge. For the latter, the median survival time was 67 (i.q.r. 21-168) days after EGS discharge. Malignancy accounted for 48 per cent of deaths and was the predominant cause of death in patients aged over 35 years. The cause of death was directly related to the discharge diagnosis in 56.5 per cent of patients. Symptom-based discharge diagnoses were often associated with a malignancy not diagnosed on admission. CONCLUSION: When analysed by subsequent cause of death, EGS is a cancer-based specialty. Adequate follow-up and close links with oncology and palliative care services merit development.

A 19 year population-based cohort study analysing reoperation for recurrence following laparoscopic and open inguinal hernia repairs.

INTRODUCTION: Laparoscopic (LHR) and open (OHR) inguinal hernia repairs are both used to treat primary herniae. This study analyses the rates of operation for recurrence after laparoscopic and open inguinal hernia repair, at a population level, while considering competing risks, such as death and other operative interventions. METHODS: This is a population cohort study in Scotland. All adult patients who had a primary inguinal hernia repair in Scotland between 01/04/1996 and 01/01/2015 were included. The main outcome was recurrent operations. Cumulative incidence functions (CIF) were calculated for competing risks of death. A cox proportional hazards regression model was used to control for confounders of age, gender, bilateral herniae, deprivation and year of procedure. RESULTS: Of 88,590 patients, there were 10,145 LHR and 78,445 OHR. Recurrent operations were required in 1397 (1.8%) OHR and 362 (3.6%). LHR had greater hazard of recurrence than OHR (HR 1.83, 95% CI 1.61-2.08, p < 0.001). Faster time to recurrence was also associated with being older (HR for one year increase: 1.010, 95% CI 1.007-1.013, p < 0.001), being more affluent (HR 1.18, 95% CI 1.01-1.38, p = 0.04) and having a bilateral index operation (HR 2.53, 95% CI 2.22-2.88, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: LHR is becoming more popular in Scotland over the past 2 decades. However, when other key confounding factors are controlled, it is associated with a higher recurrence rate.

Twenty-year study of in-hospital and postdischarge mortality following emergency general surgical admission.

Background: Emergency general surgery (EGS) patients have a higher mortality than those having elective surgery. Few studies have investigated changes in EGS-associated mortality over time or explored mortality rates after discharge. The aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive, population-based analysis of mortality in EGS patients over a 20-year time frame. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study of all adult EGS admissions in Scotland between 1996 and 2015. Data were obtained from national records. Co-morbidities were defined by Charlson Co-morbidity Index, and operations were coded by OPCS-4 classifications. Linear and multivariable logistic regression models were used to evaluate changes over time. Results: Among 1 450 296 patients, the overall inpatient, 30-day, 90-day and 1-year mortality rates were 1·8, 3·8, 6·4 and 12·5 per cent respectively. Mortality was influenced by age at admission, co-morbidity, operation performed and date of admission (all P < 0·001), and improved with time on subgroup analysis by age, co-morbidity and operation status. Medium-term mortality was high: the 1-year mortality rate in patients aged over 75 years was 35·6 per cent. The 1-year mortality rate in highly co-morbid patients decreased from 75·1 to 57·1 per cent over the time frame of the study (P < 0·001). Conclusion: Mortality after EGS in Scotland has reduced significantly over the past 20 years. This analysis of medium-term mortality after EGS admission demonstrates strikingly high rates, and postdischarge death rates are higher than is currently appreciated.

Antecedentes: Los pacientes sometidos a cirugía general urgente (emergency general surgery, EGS) presentan una mortalidad más elevada que los pacientes sometidos a cirugía electiva. Pocos estudios han investigado los cambios en la mortalidad asociada a la EGS a lo largo del tiempo o han analizado las tasas de mortalidad tras el alta hospitalaria. El objetivo de este estudio fue llevar a cabo un análisis exhaustivo de base poblacional de la mortalidad en pacientes en EGS durante un horizonte temporal de 20 años. Métodos: Se trata de un estudio transversal de todos los ingresos de adultos por EGS en Escocia entre 1996 y 2015. Los datos se obtuvieron de los registros nacionales. Las comorbilidades se definieron según el índice de comorbilidad de Charlson y las operaciones se codificaron con las clasificaciones OPCS4. Se utilizaron modelos de regresión logística lineal y multivariante para evaluar cambios a los largo del tiempo. Resultados: En un total de 1.450.296 pacientes, las tasas globales de mortalidad hospitalaria, a los 30 días, 90 días y un año fueron de 1,8%, 3,8%, 6,4% y 12,5%, respectivamente. La mortalidad estaba influida por la edad en el momento del ingreso, comorbilidad, la intervención quirúrgica realizada y la fecha de ingreso (todas las variables P < 0,001) y mejoró con el tiempo en el análisis por subgrupos de edad, comorbilidad e intervenciones quirúrgicas. La mortalidad a medio plazo fue elevada: la tasa de mortalidad a un año en pacientes mayores de 75 años fue de 35,6%. La mortalidad a un año en pacientes con elevada morbilidad disminuyó de un 75% a un 57% a lo largo del periodo del estudio (P < 0,001). Conclusión: La mortalidad tras EGS en Escocia ha disminuido significativamente a lo largo de los últimos 20 años. No obstante, el análisis de la mortalidad a medio plazo después de un ingreso por EGS demuestra unas tasas sorprendentemente elevadas y, por ello, actualmente hay que tener en cuenta la mortalidad tras el alta de forma especial.

Fibrinolysis in trauma: a review.

Fibrinolytic dysregulation is an important mechanism in traumatic coagulopathy. It is an incompletely understood process that consists of a spectrum ranging from excessive breakdown (hyperfibrinolysis) and the shutdown of fibrinolysis. Both hyperfibrinolysis and shutdown are associated with excess mortality and post-traumatic organ failure. The pathophysiology appears to relate to endothelial injury and hypoperfusion, with several molecular markers identified in playing a role. Although there are no universally accepted diagnostic tests, viscoelastic studies appear to offer the greatest potential for timely identification of patients presenting with fibrinolytic dysregulation. Treatment is multimodal, involving prompt hemorrhage control and resuscitation, with controversy surrounding the use of antifibrinolytic drug therapy. This review presents the current evidence on the pathophysiology, diagnostic challenges, as well as the management of this hemostatic dysfunction. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Lower limb injuries caused by improvised explosive devices: proposed 'Bastion classification' and prospective validation.

BACKGROUND: Complex lower limb injury caused by improvised explosive devices (IEDs) has become the signature wounding pattern of the conflict in Afghanistan. Current classifications neither describe this injury pattern well, nor correlate with management. There is need for a new classification, to aid communication between clinicians, and help evaluate interventions and outcomes. We propose such a classification, and present the results of an initial prospective evaluation. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The classification was developed by a panel of military surgeons whilst deployed to Camp Bastion, Afghanistan. Injuries were divided into five classes, by anatomic level. Segmental injuries were recognised as a distinct entity. Associated injuries to the intraperitoneal abdomen, genitalia and perineum, pelvic ring, and upper limbs, which impact on clinical management and resources, were also accounted for. RESULTS: Between 1 November 2010 and 20 February 2011, 179 IED-related lower limb injuries in 103 consecutive casualties were classified, and their subsequent vascular and musculoskeletal treatment recorded. 69% of the injuries were traumatic amputations, and the remainder segmental injuries. 49% of casualties suffered bilateral lower limb amputation. The most common injury was class 3 (involving proximal lower leg or thigh, permitting effective above-knee tourniquet application, 49%), but more proximal patterns (class 4 or 5, preventing effective tourniquet application) accounted for 18% of injuries. Eleven casualties had associated intraperitoneal abdominal injuries, 41 suffered genital or perineal injuries, 9 had pelvic ring fractures, and 66 had upper limb injuries. The classification was easy to apply and correlated with management. CONCLUSIONS: The 'Bastion classification' is a pragmatic yet clinically relevant injury categorisation, which describes current injury patterns well, and should facilitate communication between clinicians, and the evaluation of interventions and outcomes. The validation cohort confirms that the injury burden from IEDs in the Helmand Province of Afghanistan remains high, with most casualties sustaining amputation through or above the knee. The rates of associated injury to the abdomen, perineum, pelvis and upper limbs are high. These findings have important implications for the training of military surgeons, staffing and resourcing of medical treatment facilities, to ensure an adequate skill mix to manage these complex and challenging injuries.

Trauma care in Scotland: effect of rurality on ambulance travel times and level of destination healthcare facility.

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of rurality on the level of destination healthcare facility and ambulance response times for trauma patients in Scotland. METHODS: We used a retrospective analysis of pre-hospital data routinely collected by the Scottish Ambulance Service from 2009-2010. Incident locations were categorised by rurality, using the Scottish urban/rural classification. The level of destination healthcare facility was coded as either a teaching hospital, large general hospital, general hospital, or other type of facility. RESULTS: A total of 64,377 incidents met the inclusion criteria. The majority of incidents occurred in urban areas, which mostly resulted in admission to teaching hospitals. Incidents from other areas resulted in admission to a lower-level facility. The majority of incidents originating in very remote small towns and very remote rural areas were treated in a general hospital. Median call-out times and travel times increased with the degree of rurality, although with some exceptions. CONCLUSIONS: Trauma is relatively rare in rural areas, but patients injured in remote locations are doubly disadvantaged by prolonged pre-hospital times and admission to a hospital that may not be adequately equipped to deal with their injuries. These problems may be overcome by the regionalisation of trauma care, and enhanced retrieval capability.

Changes in blood transfusion practices in the UK role 3 medical treatment facility in Afghanistan, 2008-2011.

OBJECTIVE: To document blood component usage in the UK medical treatment facility, Afghanistan, over a period of 4 years; and to examine the relationship with transfusion capability, injury pattern and survival. BACKGROUND: Haemostatic resuscitation is now firmly established in military medical practice, despite the challenges of providing such therapy in austere settings. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retrospective study of blood component use in service personnel admitted for trauma. Data were extracted from the UK Joint Theatre Trauma Registry. RESULTS: A total of 2618 patients were identified. Survival increased from 76 to 84% despite no change in injury severity. The proportion of patients receiving blood components increased from 13 to 32% per annum; 417 casualties received massive transfusion (≥10 units of RCC), the proportion increasing from 40 to 62%. Use of all blood components increased significantly in severely injured casualties, to a median (IQR) of 16 (9-25) units of red cell concentrate (P = 0·006), 15 (8-24) of plasma (P = 0·002), 2 (0-5) of platelets (P < 0·001) and 1 (0-3) of cryoprecipitate (P < 0·001). Cryoprecipitate (P = 0·009) and platelet use (P = 0·005) also increased in moderately injured casualties. CONCLUSIONS: The number of blood components transfused to individual combat casualties increased during the 4-year period, despite no change in injury severity or injury pattern. Survival also increased. Combat casualties requiring massive transfusion have a significantly higher chance of survival than civilian patients. Survival is the product of the entire system of care. However, we propose that the changes in military transfusion practice and capability have contributed to increased combat trauma survival.

Complications after laparoscopic and open subtotal colectomy for inflammatory colitis: a case-matched comparison.

AIM: The aim of this study was to compare the early postoperative outcome of patients undergoing laparoscopic subtotal colectomy with those undergoing open subtotal colectomy for colitis refractory to medical treatment. METHOD: A retrospective observational study was carried out of patients who underwent subtotal colectomy for refractory colitis, at a single centre, between 2006 and 2012. Patients were matched for age, gender, American Society of Anesthesiology (ASA) grade, urgency of operation and immunosuppressant/modulator treatment. The primary outcome measure was the number of postoperative complications, classified using the Clavien-Dindo scale. Secondary end-points included procedure duration, laparoscopic conversion rates, blood loss, 30-day readmission rates and length of hospital stay. RESULTS: Ninety-six patients were included, 39 of whom had laparoscopic surgery. Thirty-two of these were matched to similar patients who underwent an open procedure. The overall duration of the procedure was longer for laparoscopic surgery than for open surgery (median: 240 vs 150 min, P < 0.005) but estimated blood loss was less (median: 75 vs 400 ml, P < 0.005). In the laparoscopic group, 23 patients experienced 27 complications, and in the open surgery group, 23 patients experienced 30 complications. Most complications were minor (Grade I/II), and the distribution of complications, by grade, was similar between the two groups. There was no statistically significant difference in 30-day readmission rates between the laparoscopic and open groups (five readmissions vs eight readmissions, P = 0.536). Length of hospital stay was 4 days shorter for laparoscopic surgery, but this difference was not statistically significant (median: 7 vs 11 days, P = 0.159). CONCLUSION: In patients requiring colectomy for acute severe colitis, laparoscopic surgery reduced blood loss but increased operating time and was not associated with a reduction in early postoperative complications, length of hospital stay or readmission rates.

Intra-operative correction of acidosis, coagulopathy and hypothermia in combat casualties with severe haemorrhagic shock.

We assessed acidosis, coagulopathy and hypothermia, before and after surgery in 51 combat troops operated on for severe blast injury. Patients were transfused a median (IQR [range]) of 27 (17-38 [5-84]) units of red cell concentrate, 27 (16-38 [4-83]) units of plasma, 2.0 (0.5-3.5 [0-13.0]) units of cryoprecipitate and 4 (2-6 [0-17]) pools of platelets. The pH, base excess, prothrombin time and temperature increased: from 7.19 (7.10-7.29 [6.50-7.49]) to 7.45 (7.40-7.51 [7.15-7.62]); from -9.0 (-13.5 to -4.5 [-28 to -2]) mmol.l⁻¹ to 4.5 (1.0-8.0 [-7 to +11]) mmol.l⁻¹; from 18 (15-21 [9-24]) s to 14 (11-18 [9-21]) s; and from 36.1 (35.1-37.1 [33.0-38.1]) °C to 37.4 (37.0-37.9 [36.0-38.0]) °C, respectively. Contemporary intra-operative resuscitation strategies can normalise the physiological derangements caused by haemorrhagic shock.

Temporal changes in ROTEM®-measured coagulability of citrated blood samples from coagulopathic trauma patients.

BACKGROUND: Rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM(®)) relies on citrated blood samples, which are regarded as biologically stable for up to 4 h after venepuncture. However, this recommendation is based on data from normal volunteers. The aim of this study was to evaluate possible temporal changes in the coagulability of blood samples from coagulopathic trauma patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This is a prospective series of 10 coagulopathic (maximum clot firmness, MCF<40 mm) trauma patients. ROTEM(®) EXTEM (tissue factor activated) and FIBTEM (tissue factor activated, cytochalasin D inhibited) analyses were performed on samples obtained on admission, and after approximately 60 min of storage in an incubator, at 37°C. RESULTS: There were statistically significant differences between the median EXTEM MCF (22 mm vs 54 mm, p<0.001) and α angle (30.5 vs 59.5°, p=0.004) of the analyses performed immediately after sampling, and 51 min (median) subsequently, but not coagulation time (CT, p=0.133), clot formation time (p=0.0625) or maximum lysis (ML, p=0.154). There were also no differences in median FIBTEM MCF (p=1.00) or CT (p=0.877) between the immediate and delayed analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Repeated ROTEM(®) EXTEM analysis of citrated samples from coagulopathic trauma patients shows a spontaneous improvement in coagulability with time. The absence of parallel changes on FIBTEM analysis suggests that this effect may be due to a change in platelet function.

Rural and urban distribution of trauma incidents in Scotland.

BACKGROUND: Trauma systems reduce mortality and improve functional outcomes from injury. Regional trauma networks have been established in several European regions to address longstanding deficiencies in trauma care. A perception of the geography and population distribution as challenging has delayed the introduction of a trauma system in Scotland. The characteristics of trauma incidents attended by the Scottish Ambulance Service were analysed, to gain a better understanding of the geospatial characteristics of trauma in Scotland. METHODS: Data on trauma incidents collected by the Scottish Ambulance Service between November 2008 and October 2010 were obtained. Incident location was analysed by health board region, rurality and social deprivation. The results are presented as number of patients, average annual incidence rates and relative risks. RESULTS: Of the 141,668 incidents identified, 72·1 per cent occurred in urban regions. The risk of being involved in an incident was similar across the most populous regions, and decreased slightly with increasing rurality. Social deprivation was associated with greater numbers and risk. A total of 53·1 per cent of patients were taken to a large general hospital, and 38·6 per cent to a teaching hospital; the distribution was similar for the subset of incidents involving patients with physiological derangements. CONCLUSION: The majority of trauma incidents in Scotland occur in urban and deprived areas. A regionalized system of trauma care appears plausible, although the precise configuration of such a system requires further study.

Selective non-operative management of penetrating abdominal injury in Great Britain and Ireland: survey of practice.

BACKGROUND: The selective non-operative management of penetrating abdominal injury is gaining increasing acceptance. In Great Britain and Ireland, the management of trauma remains the responsibility of general surgeons. This study appraises the acceptance and utilisation of selective non-operative management strategies by British and Irish general surgeons, compared with trauma surgeons in the United States of America. METHODS: Electronic questionnaire survey of British and Irish consultant general surgeons and trauma surgeons in the United States of America. RESULTS: 139 British and Irish general surgeons and 75 US trauma surgeons completed the survey. 84.3% of British and Irish general surgeons and 94.4% of US trauma surgeons practise selective non-operative management of abdominal stab wounds, and 14.0% and 74.3% practise selective non-operative management of abdominal gunshot wounds. The management of those British and Irish surgeons who do practise selective non-operative management is broadly similar to that of US trauma surgeons, with the exception of the use of laparoscopy to examine the left hemidiaphragm following thoracoabdominal injuries, which is employed by fewer British and Irish general surgeons than US trauma surgeons. CONCLUSIONS: The selective non-operative management of abdominal stab wounds is generally accepted by British and Irish general surgeons. In contrast, few British and Irish surgeons are comfortable with non-operatively managing patients with abdominal gunshot wounds, reflecting both the rarity of this type of injury, and surgeons' training and experience. This proportion is unlikely to change until the management of torso trauma is recognised as a specialty, and services are concentrated in regional centres.

Difficult decisions in the surgical care of military casualties with major torso trauma.

Testing and difficult decision-making is a sine qua non of surgical practice on military operations. Better pre-hospital care protocols, reduced evacuation timelines and increased scrutiny of outcome have rightfully emphasised the requirement of surgeons to "get it right, first time and every time" when treating patients. This article addresses five contentious areas concerning severe torso trauma, with relevant literature summarised by a subject matter expert, in order to produce practical guidance that will assist the newly deployed surgeon in delivering optimal clinical outcomes.

Nutritional management of critically ill trauma patients in the deployed military setting.

The role of nutritional support in critical illness is well established. This article reviews the nutritional management of military trauma patients in the deployed setting, which poses special challenges for the surgeon and intensivist. There is little direct evidence relating to the nutritional management of trauma patients in general, and military trauma patients in particular, but much of the evidence accrued in the civilian and non-trauma critical care setting can be extrapolated to military practice. There is strong consensus that feeding should be commenced as soon possible after injury. Enteral nutrition should be used in preference to parenteral nutrition whenever possible. If available, supplemental parenteral feeding can be considered if enteral delivery is insufficient. Gastrointestinal anastomoses and repairs, including those in the upper gastrointestinal tract, are not a contraindication to early enteral feeding. Intragastric delivery is more physiological and usually more convenient than postpyloric feeding, and thus the preferred route for the initiation of nutritional support. Feeding gastrostomies or jejunostomies should not be used for short-term nutritional support. Enteral feeding of patients with an open abdomen does not delay closure and may reduce the incidence of pneumonia, and enteral nutrition should be continued for scheduled relook surgery not involving hollow viscera or airway. Glutamine supplementation may improve outcome in trauma patients, but fish-oil containing feeds, while showing some promise, should be reserved for subgroups of patients with ARDS.

Selective non-operative management of abdominal injury in the military setting.

This article represents a consensus view of those TTWG members present in Birmingham and taking into account the views of the other group members via email discussion. We believe it represents clear guidance for the deployed clinician and recommend the use of selective non-operative management when appropriate.

Ballistic thoracoabdominal injury: analysis of recent military experience in afghanistan.

BACKGROUND: Military surgery has seen the arrival of the critical care provision and cross-sectional imaging enjoyed by civilian trauma surgeons. Ballistic injury to the thoracoabdominal region is uncommon but potentially devastating. The aim of this study was to analyze recent military experience of managing this injury complex. METHODS: The study is a retrospective analysis of patients, admitted over a 12-month period, to the British Military Hospital in Afghanistan with ballistic thoracoabdominal injuries. RESULTS: In total, 27 patients sustained combined thoracoabdominal injury with a mean new injury severity score of 29±12, revised trauma score of 5.94±2.93 and predicted survival of 71.1%±39.1%. In all, 20 (74%) patients underwent immediate operation, and 7 (26%) were initially managed nonoperatively. Of those requiring surgery, 11 required laparotomy and tube thoracostomy, and 9 required thoraco-laparotomy. Of the seven casualties who were initially observed and/or further investigated, two required laparotomy following computed tomography scanning, and five were managed conservatively, two of whom required delayed surgery. There were nine fatalities, all within 16 days of being wounded. Four patients died from exsanguination, one from a traumatic brain injury, and four from multiorgan failure. Five patients presented with cardiac arrest, two of whom survived. CONCLUSIONS: Exploration remains the default treatment. Resuscitative thoracotomy may yield unexpected survivors, even if subsequent laparotomy is required. Nonoperative management appears to be feasible in a small proportion of patients but requires careful selection supported by cross-sectional imaging.

Protocol-driven trauma resuscitation: survey of UK practice.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of protocol-driven trauma resuscitation strategies in UK emergency departments. METHODS: Postal/internet questionnaire survey of emergency departments to evaluate the existence of guidelines or protocols to direct resuscitation, blood component treatment, second line imaging of patients who had major trauma and the existence of a trauma team/trauma call system. RESULTS: 243 departments were identified and contacted, 183 responded. Five replies were excluded. Of the remaining 178 departments, 139 (78.1%) had a trauma team or trauma call system, but only 49 (27.5%) had a guideline or protocol for resuscitation. 92 (51.7%) had guidelines or protocols for blood component treatment in trauma, and 88 (49.4%) had guidelines or protocols for the use of second line imaging in trauma. The use of protocols and guidelines did not correlate with emergency department size, as measured by volume of activity. CONCLUSIONS: The utilisation of trauma resuscitation protocols and guidelines in British emergency departments is limited. Given the clear benefits of these strategies, consideration should be given to greater integration of such algorithms into practice.