Skull asymmetry in various sheep breeds: Directional asymmetry and fluctuating asymmetry.

Sheep (Ovis aries) play an important role in the economy of Turkey and the Balkan Peninsula due to their use in farming. As a domesticated species, sheep's morphometric and morphological diversity is likely determined by selective breeding practices rather than geographic distribution. This study aimed to analyse four different sheep breed skulls and reveal skull asymmetry using geometric morphometric methods. For this purpose, 2D images of 52 sheep skulls from different breeds were analysed from the dorsal view of the skull, using 28 landmarks. In the comparison of sheep skulls from the dorsal view, the first principal components for directional asymmetry (DA) and fluctuating asymmetry (FA) were 32.98% and 39.62% of the total variation, respectively. Sharri and Ivesi (Awassi) sheep breeds had the broadest distribution of skull shapes among the breeds, while Lara e Polisit was the most conservative breed. DA was used as a measure of biomechanical constraints, and FA was used as an indicator of environmental stress. Consistent with DA, both differences in centroid size and shape between breeds were statistically significant. No differences between males and females related to asymmetry were revealed. Ivesi sheep revealed the highest fluctuating asymmetry. Geometric morphometric methods proved to be a useful tool for distinguishing differences in the shape of the skull of different sheep breeds and also can be useful for taxonomic purposes.

Geometric morphometric evaluation of mandibles of four sheep breeds: Bardoka, Ivesi, Polish Mountain sheep and Turcana.

The enduring relationship between humans and domestic sheep has evolved over millennia, showcasing diverse uses such as meat, milk, wool, leather and fur, shaped by geographical, historical, cultural and social factors. The sheep breeds discussed include the Ivesi from Southeastern Anatolia, known for its varied animal products; the resilient Turcana breed of Romania; Kosovo's Bardoka, valued for its triple-purpose characteristics; and Poland's Polish Mountain Sheep, uniquely utilized for milk production in cheese making. Sheep, with their enduring relationship with humans and significant economic importance, have attracted scientific interest in morphometric studies of their mandibles, yielding valuable data applicable across various fields including basic anatomy, veterinary clinical anatomy, zooarchaeology and veterinary forensic medicine. Traditional morphometric studies rely on statistical methods to compare length, depth and angular ratios between anatomical formations, often highlighting differences between specific points but not fully revealing shape variations between distinct groups. Geometric morphometric analysis has emerged as a preferred method in recent years, enabling shape analyses using coordinate data from various imaging techniques, facilitating a comprehensive examination of mandibular morphometrics among sheep breeds across different countries. This study involved four sheep breeds from different countries, namely Ivesi from Turkey, Bardoka from Kosovo, Polish Mountain Sheep from Poland and Turcana from Romania, with a total of 70 mandibles sourced from various veterinary faculties. Mandibular photographs were meticulously captured, focusing on the right side of mandible pairs and placing landmarks and semi-landmarks along the entire edge, enabling geometric morphometric analysis using tpsUtil, tpsDig2 and MorphoJ software. The analysis included principal component analysis, canonical variate analysis and discriminant function analysis for pairwise comparisons, facilitating a comprehensive examination of mandibular shape variations among the different sheep breeds. Using geometric morphometric methods, this study analysed mandibles from four distinct sheep breeds sourced from different countries, revealing notable variations in regions such as the ramus mandibula, angulus mandibula and incisive areas, attributed to genetic, geographical and dietary influences, highlighting the importance of continued research to better comprehend these shape differences.

Skull variation in different breeds sheep from Balkan countries.

The Balkan Peninsula region has a very diverse agricultural and livestock tradition, and almost every country has its own local breed of sheep. Different breeds of sheep and different breeding traditions, despite the small geographical distance, determine the morphological and morphometric variability among animal breeds. In this study, this morphological diversity among the skulls of sheep breeds of some countries in the Balkan region was examined by the geometric morphometric method. 2D images of 86 sheep skulls from five different countries were analyzed from the dorsal view.Sixteen landmarks were used. The Bardhoka and the Ivesi breed have the broadest distributions of skull shape amongst the sheep breeds. The Ruda sheep is the most morphologically conservative. The sheep from Turkey (Ivesi) and Kosovo (Bardhoka) seem to differ mainly from sheep from other Balkan countries. Bardhoka and Ruda differ most from each other (p < 0.0001). The next biggest differences were between Ivesi and Ruda (p < 0.0011) and between Bardhoka and Sharri sheep (p < 0.0016). The sheep breeds Dubska and Lara e Polisit differ the least from each other. Geometrics morphometric analysis is a useful tool to detect differences in the shape of the skull of different sheep breeds and can therefore be used successfully for taxonomic purposes.

Morphometric analysis for the sex determination of the skull of the Deltari Ilir dog (Canis lupus familiaris) of Kosovo.

This study aimed to explain the sex determination of the autochthonous dog Deltari Ilir with both morphometric and geometric analysis methods. For this purpose, 24 Deltari Ilir dog skulls (12 females and 12 males) were used in the study. The difference between males and females at 6 values was statistically significant. The most statistically significant difference was seen in the measurement of the greatest breadth of the occipital condyles (p < 0.000). This measurement was higher in male skulls. The next most significant difference was seen in the greatest inner height of the orbit measurement (p < 0.002). This measurement was also higher than for females. In general, the skull length measurements of male dogs were higher than that of females. Male dog skulls had greater skull length and skull height. The lateral view was used for geometric analysis and 14 landmarks were determined. As a result of principal component analysis, 22 PC values were obtained. PC1 accounted for 23.73% of the total variance. As a result of canonical variants analysis, it was observed that males and females were completely separated from each other. The caudal part of the males was wider than the females in geometric analysis. As a result of the study, sex-determining characteristics were revealed for the Deltari Ilir dog. It was seen that gender analysis could be done with both morphometric and geometric analysis methods. In addition, it was seen that morphometric results and geometric analysis results supported each other. Moreover, the results of the study will be useful in the function of comparative anatomy, in veterinary clinical practice, in zooarchaeology but why not also in the veterinary forensic investigation.

A Different Perspective on Sex Dimorphism in the Adult Hermann's Tortoise: Geometric Morphometry.

Eastern Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni boettgeri) is a subspecies of Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni) found in Albania. Gender determination is one of the crucial elements in determining the population dynamics in all species. Female and male adult tortoises look different, but these differences can be difficult to distinguish in captivity or when their sex indicators are deformed or injured. Therefore, the aim of this study was to use indirect and non-invasive methods such as geometric morphometric analysis to determine the sex of adult tortoises. For the geometric morphometry, 17 female and 23 male Hermann's tortoises were collected and photographed from the hills and mountains around the Tirana district of Albania between August and October 2019. Sexes were discriminated based on geometric morphometry, and plastron shape was a better indicator than carapace shape. In addition, abdominal, femoral and anal scutes on the plastron and the ratio of femoral to pectoral suture lengths were important for the sex distinction. Females had a larger plastron than males; this may have been supported by fecundity selection, because a large plastron suggests more volume in which to store eggs. The femoral and anal scutes were larger in male tortoises, and serve as a stronger base during mating. This study was conducted for adults only, and future studies are needed to determine if these indicators also apply to hatchlings and juveniles.

Morphological Divergence of Hermann's Tortoise (Testudo hermanni boettgeri Mojsisovits, 1889) in Albania.

Testudines show phenotypic plasticity, and variation among specific populations within a species is widespread. Morphological differences between populations may reflect ecological factors that drive adaptation to local conditions. In this context, we gathered basic data on the morphology of the Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni boettgeri Mojsisovits, 1889) to document their variation across different geographical regions. We surveyed Hermann's tortoises in five different locales within Albania during April and May 2020 and measured 20 morphological characteristics, including carapace and plastron dimensions. We measured 188 tortoises (81 males, 107 females) in this study, and females were larger (p = 0.0001) and heavier (p = 0.0001) than males. Mean straight carapace length (SCL) and body mass were 172.4 mm and 1128.8 g, respectively, for females, and 151.3 mm and 735 g, respectively, for males. The Albanian T. h. boettgeri were regionally diverged into three different populations that were situated in northern (Shkodra), central (Tirana, Berati, and Ballshi), and southern (Saranda) Albania. The body size (curved carapace length (CCL)) of females was positively correlated (r = 0.216; p = 0.025) with the latitude, in accordance with Bergmann's rule. However, there was no correlation between body size and latitude in males. These striking regional differences among Albanian T. h. boettgeri strongly suggest that further study of molecular variations and reproductive output of Hermann's tortoises is warranted.

Morphometric analysis of the mandible of Bardhoka autochthonous sheep in Kosovo.

Kosovo, one of the countries in the Balkan Peninsula, has a long tradition in sheep farming, and sheep breeds share triple purpose breed characteristics: milk, meat and wool. Bardhoka sheep, also with triple productive profile, is an important sheep breed because of its economic value with its milk production. In this study, 24 mandibles of adult Bardhoka sheep (12 male and 12 female) aged between 2 and 5 were used. The sheep were acquired from slaughterhouse around Kosovo, and the mandibles were selected without any deformities from healthy sheep. After cleaning the mandibles, a total of 12 morphometric measurements were taken from each sample using digital calliper. The difference between female and male was statistically significant (p < .05) for measurement 11 (height of mandible level of alveolar edge of 3rd molar tooth). The mean value of measurement 11 in male individuals was 42.26 ± 3.96, and it had a higher value than in female individuals (39.37 ± 2.57). In the literature, knowledge related to mandible morphometry of Bardhoka sheep was insufficient. The aim of this study was to determine mean values from osteometric measurements of Bardhoka sheep mandible and obtain references with the values acquired.

A study on morphology and morphometric parameters on skull of the Bardhoka autochthonous sheep breed in Kosovo.

In this study, we aim to investigate the skull of Bardhoka sheep, which is the native breed of Kosovo by utilising normal morphometric methods. Differences between male and female were also statistically analysed. Further, the parameters that can be used in gender discrimination were also analysed. The statistical analysis was based on a sample of 24 adult skulls of Bardhoka breed with 12 female and 12 male skulls. Altogether, 31 different measurements were taken morphologically and 7 different indices were applied. Except for the measurement's values of the orbit, measurement's values of length of the cheek tooth row and the measurement's values of height of the foramen magnum, all the measured values of males were higher than females. Nasal index, cranium index and skull index values were statistically significant between both genders. It is envisaged that the findings of this study will motivate and assist other comparative studies with other autochthonous sheep and goat breeds found in the Dukagjini region or in clinical veterinary practice and even in zooarchaeology.