Use of Rapid Response Teams in Psychiatry: Variables that Impact Safety.

OBJECTIVE: The addition of rapid response teams (RRTs) has emerged as a treatment option for medically deteriorating psychiatric inpatients. The goal of this study was to identify risk factors for use of RRTs at the time of initial psychiatric evaluation and develop measures to predict use of this emergent medical intervention. We have not located any studies that have previously addressed this issue. METHODS: We studied the use of RRTs and code teams (CTs) on inpatient general and specialty psychiatric services in a large urban academic psychiatric hospital. RRT or CT calls were made for 60 patients on these units between January, 2010 and December, 2012. Our retrospective chart review study compared the cases of these 60 patients with 120 matched controls. Using χ and the Fisher exact tests, we identified variables that differed significantly between the case and control groups. Next, we used a forward stepwise regression model to create prediction tools to risk stratify patients at the time of initial assessment. RESULTS: Bivariate analyses identified 14 independent statistically significant patient variables. We created 2 risk prediction tools: (1) an "exhaustive" tool (which used 12 of the total 38 factors we considered) based on a stepwise regression model that yielded an area under the receiver operating curve (AUC) of 0.91, and (2) a simplified tool referred to by the acronym "SCHEME" with 6 factors and an AUC of 0.76. CONCLUSIONS: We propose the acronym SCHEME to refer to a tool that can be used to quickly and easily assess medical risk in prospective psychiatric inpatients at the time of admission, which can help reduce the use of RRTs and CTs.

Perspectives on the Use of eHealth in the Management of Patients With Schizophrenia.

Mobile devices, digital technologies, and web-based applications-known collectively as eHealth (electronic health)-could improve health care delivery for costly, chronic diseases such as schizophrenia. Pharmacologic and psychosocial therapies represent the primary treatment for individuals with schizophrenia; however, extensive resources are required to support adherence, facilitate continuity of care, and prevent relapse and its sequelae. This paper addresses the use of eHealth in the management of schizophrenia based on a roundtable discussion with a panel of experts, which included psychiatrists, a medical technology innovator, a mental health advocate, a family caregiver, a health policy maker, and a third-party payor. The expert panel discussed the uses, benefits, and limitations of emerging eHealth with the capability to integrate care and extend service accessibility, monitor patient status in real time, enhance medication adherence, and empower patients to take a more active role in managing their disease. In summary, to support this technological future, eHealth requires significant research regarding implementation, patient barriers, policy, and funding.

Cross-national variations in reported discrimination among people treated for major depression worldwide: the ASPEN/INDIGO international study.

BACKGROUND: No study has so far explored differences in discrimination reported by people with major depressive disorder (MDD) across countries and cultures. AIMS: To (a) compare reported discrimination across different countries, and (b) explore the relative weight of individual and contextual factors in explaining levels of reported discrimination in people with MDD. METHOD: Cross-sectional multisite international survey (34 countries worldwide) of 1082 people with MDD. Experienced and anticipated discrimination were assessed by the Discrimination and Stigma Scale (DISC). Countries were classified according to their rating on the Human Development Index (HDI). Multilevel negative binomial and Poisson models were used. RESULTS: People living in 'very high HDI' countries reported higher discrimination than those in 'medium/low HDI' countries. Variation in reported discrimination across countries was only partially explained by individual-level variables. The contribution of country-level variables was significant for anticipated discrimination only. CONCLUSIONS: Contextual factors play an important role in anticipated discrimination. Country-specific interventions should be implemented to prevent discrimination towards people with MDD.

Depression after traumatic brain injury: a biopsychosocial cultural perspective.

There are several challenges in diagnosing and treating mental illness amongst South Asians. Often times, formulating a patient's case presentation cannot adequately be accomplished strictly using a biopsychosocial model. The cultural components play an imperative role in explaining certain psychiatric symptoms and can guide treatment. With the growing population of immigrants coming to the United States, many of which require treatment for mental illness, it is essential that clinicians be cognizant in incorporating cultural perspectives when treating such patients. The authors describe the case of a 24-year old South Asian male who suffered an exacerbation of a depressive syndrome after a traumatic brain injury. Using a biopsychosocial cultural approach, this case highlights how South Asian cultural values can contribute to and incite psychiatric symptoms while simultaneously providing protective drivers for treatment outcomes.

Inpatient suicide prevention: promoting a culture and system of safety over 30 years of practice.

In April 2012, the Joint Commission (JC) report noted that psychiatric hospitals were the most frequent setting for a sentinel event. In 2010-12, suicide was among the top 5 causes of a sentinel event and was a more frequent cause of sentinel events than medication errors. Suicide was ranked as the 10th leading cause of death among persons 10 years of age and older, accounting for 36,891 deaths in 2009. Previous research on suicide has focused on patient evaluation, disease management, symptom assessment, and the use of risk prevention tools, but few publications have reported on system-wide integrated approaches to successful suicide prevention. In this article on inpatient suicide prevention, I present the successful strategies based on epidemiological findings that have been used in one institution to reduce inpatient suicide risk. This report covers strategies that have been used for over 32 years in the treatment of more than 60,000 patients. The successful prevention efforts described in this article involved staff training and deployment, thorough patient assessment, environmental protections, complete handouts, and patient care protocols.

Electroconvulsive therapy pre-treatment with low dose propofol: comparison with unmodified treatment.

BACKGROUND: Whilst electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is routinely administered under anesthesia in developed nations, in many developing countries, ECT is still administered unmodified. This practice has attracted considerable scrutiny with calls to ban unmodified ECT. However, there are no affordable alternatives for many poor, acutely ill psychiatric patients. We evaluated whether administration of intravenous propofol 0.5 mg/kg for sedation by the ECT psychiatrist just prior to otherwise unmodified treatment improved acceptance of and reduced anxiety surrounding the treatment. METHOD: We conducted an open label trial at The King George's Medical University in Lucknow, India. Forty-nine patients received propofol pre-treatment and 50 patients received unmodified treatment as usual. RESULTS: Socio-demographic profiles, diagnoses and clinical responses were comparable. Patients who received propofol experienced less anxiety monitored by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory just prior to ECT (p < 0.001), and had a more favorable attitude towards treatment assessed by an established questionnaire (Freeman and Kendell, 1980). Propofol patients were less likely to experience post-ictal delirium monitored by the CAM-ICU (p = 0.015) and had fewer cognitive side-effects on the MMSE (p = 0.004). There were no adverse events associated with propofol administration. CONCLUSION: Whilst unmodified ECT should never be used when modified ECT under anesthesia is available, we have found low dose propofol can be safely administered by the ECT psychiatrist to sedate patients pre-treatment who would otherwise receive completely unmodified treatment. The intervention was associated with reduced anxiety and a more positive attitude towards ECT, without compromising efficacy. A randomized double blind controlled study is necessary to confirm these benefits.

Understanding clinician perception of common presentations in South Asians seeking mental health treatment and determining barriers and facilitators to treatment.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the presentation of mental health symptoms among South Asians living in the US. OBJECTIVE: To explore mental health symptom presentation in South Asians in the US and to identify facilitators and barriers to treatment. DESIGN: Focus group study. PARTICIPANTS: Four focus groups were conducted with 7-8 participants in each group. All participants (N = 29) were clinicians who had been involved in the care of South Asian patients with emotional problems and/or mental illness in the US. APPROACH: Qualitative content analysis. RESULTS: Key themes identified included: generational differences in symptom presentation, stress was the most common symptom for younger South Asians (<40 years of age), while major mental illnesses such as severe depression, psychosis and anxiety disorder were the primary symptoms for older South Asians (>40 years of age). Substance abuse and verbal/physical/sexual abuse were not uncommon but were often not reported spontaneously. Stigma and denial of mental illness were identified as major barriers to treatment. Facilitators for treatment included use of a medical model and conducting systematic but patient-centered evaluations. CONCLUSIONS: South Asians living in the US present with a variety of mental health symptoms ranging from stress associated with acculturation to major mental illnesses. Facilitating the evaluation and treatment of South Asians with mental illness requires sensitivity to cultural issues and use of creative solutions to overcome barriers to treatment.

ECT treatment outcomes following performance improvement changes.

Differences in electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) outcomes were explored following changes in ECT administration at our institution. Two changes were introduced: (a) switching the anesthetic agent from propofol to methohexital, and (b) using a more aggressive ECT charge dosing regimen for right unilateral (RUL) electrode placement. Length of stay (LOS) and number of treatments administered per patient were monitored. A retrospective analysis was performed of two inpatient groups treated on our Mood Disorders Unit: those who underwent ECT in the 12 months prior to the changes (n = 40) and those who underwent treatment in the 12 months after the changes (n = 38). Compared with patients receiving ECT with RUL placement prior to the changes, patients who received RUL ECT after the changes had a significantly shorter inpatient LOS (27.4 versus 18 days, p = 0.028). Treatment efficacy monitored by the Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale was not impacted. The change in anesthetic agent and charge dosing each accounted for 11% of the variance in LOS among patients receiving RUL ECT. The implemented changes in ECT administration positively impacted outcome for patients receiving treatment with RUL electrode placement.

Prediction and prevention of aggression and seclusion by early screening and comprehensive seclusion documentation.

OBJECTIVE: Identification and skilled management of aggressive patients are a continued safety concern for inpatient psychiatric settings. We studied aggression reduction and the use of seclusion and restraints on our inpatient unit by developing aggression management tools. Our objectives were to systematically identify potential aggressors among admitted patients within 24 to 48 hours of admission and develop a seclusion documentation form that simultaneously trains staff to use less restrictive interventions while collecting data on its use. METHODS: Prior to patient assessment and data collection, we systematically trained all medical staff on interviewing patients using the Phipps Aggression Screening Tool. We prospectively screened 229 consecutive admissions using the Phipps Aggression Screening Tool and determined its inter-rater reliability and predictive validity. We systematically recorded the use of a variety of interventions, including seclusion, when applicable. We also documented details of acts of aggression on a comprehensive form and collected demographics, casemix severity, and outcomes. RESULTS: Twenty-two acutely ill patients were responsible for 68 violent acts, all identified by the Phipps Aggression Screening Tool. There were highly significant differences between aggressive and nonaggressive groups for length-ofstay, cost of hospitalization, and illness complexity. With the use of the new form, seclusion decreased from 32 percent to 22.4 percent in 2007. Our current use of seclusion is 0.1/1000 patient hours in 2011. CONCLUSION: The seclusion documentation form appropriately guides aggression management with less restrictive alternatives to seclusion, once potentially aggressive patients have been identified by screening.

Decreasing adverse outcomes of unmodified electroconvulsive therapy: suggestions and possibilities.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is far and away the most effective treatment for depression and quite effective for a range of other psychiatric conditions that are unresponsive to medication. Electroconvulsive therapy in the developed world has been administered with anesthesia, muscle relaxants, and ventilation since the mid-1950s following 20 years of unmodified treatment. However, in much of the developing world, ECT continues to be administered unmodified because of lack of resources. We review the efficacy of unmodified compared with modified treatment. We also review the potential drawbacks of unmodified treatment including fear and anxiety, worse postictal confusion, fracture risk, and the negative effects of unmodified treatment on how ECT is perceived in the general community. Finally, we consider potential solutions in developing countries to minimize adverse outcomes of unmodified treatment by pretreating patients either with low-dose benzodiazepines or sedating, but not anesthetizing, dosages of anesthetic agents. Randomized controlled trials are necessary before either of these options could be considered an acceptable alternative to completely unmodified treatment when modified treatment is unavailable.

Safety considerations for outpatient electroconvulsive therapy.

As electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) requires general anesthesia and is associated with both cognitive and non-cognitive side effects, careful consideration must be given to the safety aspects of providing ECT on an outpatient basis. Drawing upon published literature and their clinical experience administering outpatient ECT, the authors propose best practices for safely providing ECT to outpatients. They review criteria for selecting patients for outpatient ECT as well as treatment and programmatic issues. The authors highlight the importance of educating referring clinicians as well as patients and their families about factors involved in the safe delivery of ECT for outpatients. Fiscal considerations and the drive toward reduced length of stay are prompting insurers and caregivers to choose outpatient over inpatient ECT. For each patient, such a choice merits a careful analysis of the risks of outpatient ECT, as well as the implementation of measures to ensure patient safety.

A within-subject comparison of propofol and methohexital anesthesia for electroconvulsive therapy.

OBJECTIVES: The optimal anesthetic for electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a frequently studied but unresolved issue. Methohexital and propofol are 2 widely used anesthetic agents for ECT. The purpose of this study was to determine which of the 2 agents was associated with superior clinical outcomes. METHODS: Records from all patients who had undergone separate ECT courses with methohexital and propofol between 1992 and 2008 (n = 48) were reviewed for a retrospective within-subject comparison of outcome measures. The clinical outcomes we examined were number of treatments required in a course of ECT, changes in the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale and Mini Mental Status Examination, and length of stay in the hospital after initiation of ECT. Additionally, we compared treatment delivery between methohexital and propofol treatment courses, measuring rate of restimulation for brief seizures, seizure duration, percentage of treatments that were bilateral, and average charge administered. RESULTS: Data from 1314 treatments over 155 ECT courses were reviewed. Improvement in depressive symptoms, based on the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, was not affected by choice of anesthetic agent. However, when right unilateral electrode placement was used, patients receiving propofol required significantly more treatments than those receiving methohexital. Propofol was also associated with a significantly higher requirement for bilateral ECT and higher stimulus dosing. Seizure duration was significantly shorter in the propofol condition, with more patients requiring restimulation for brief seizures. Length of stay in the hospital and cognitive outcomes were not significantly different between propofol and methohexital treatments. CONCLUSIONS: We recommend methohexital as the induction agent of choice for ECT, especially with right unilateral placement.

Four cases of takotsubo cardiomyopathy linked with exacerbations of psychiatric illness.

Objective. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is a rare cardiac syndrome most often occurring in post-menopausal women after an acute episode of severe emotional or physical stress. Prior literature suggests a higher prevalence of anxiety and depression among patients with Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. We observed four cases of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy at one tertiary care center preceded by and concurrent with exacerbations of psychiatric illness rather than after acute episodes of stress. We examined each to further understand Takotsubo cardiomyopathy's pathogenesis and relationship to psychiatric illness.Methods. We retrospectively reviewed four consecutive cases of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy at one tertiary center from August 2009 to October 2009. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision criteria were used to diagnose psychiatric illness. Each patient was diagnosed with Takotsubo cardiomyopathy via cardiac catheterization.Results. Each woman (age range 53-67 years) was previously diagnosed with psychiatric illness. Psychiatric illnesses were as follows: Alzheimer's dementia with psychotic features, adjustment disorder, major depressive disorder, and bipolar affective disorder type 1. All four cases demonstrated exacerbations of their psychiatric illness just prior to and concurrent with their diagnosis of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. They showed improved left ventricular ejection fraction within 1 to 3 weeks after diagnosis with supportive care.Conclusions. Differing from the traditional cases of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, which follow acute events of stress, our four cases indicate exacerbations of underlying psychiatric illness can lead to Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. In addition to anxiety and depression, psychosis and mania may predispose an individual to Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. We suggest that cardiologists and psychiatrists be aware of this association and screen patients. We suggest further studies that may help better understand the connection between the heart and mind.

Identifying and reducing medication errors in psychiatry: creating a culture of safety through the use of an adverse event reporting mechanism.

Medication errors (MEs) in psychiatry have not been extensively studied. No long-term prospective efforts to demonstrate error reduction in psychiatric care using multidisciplinary interventions have been published in the literature. This article discusses the implementation of the Patient Safety Net (PSN) (an error reporting system) and of the Provider Order Entry (POE) program (a prescribing system). We educated and trained staff in their use, conducted concurrent chart reviews to estimate true error reduction, and provided continuous feedback as errors occurred. The intervention described here resulted in a reduction in MEs in association with performance improvement efforts that were conducted over 5 years and involved 65,466 patient days, and 617,524 billed doses, which is the largest study of an intervention to reduce psychiatric medication errors reported to date.

Overcoming cultural barriers to deliver comprehensive rural community mental health care in Southern India.

AIM: To describe obstacles overcome in establishing and implementing a comprehensive community psychiatry program in rural India. BACKGROUND: Studies in low income countries point to a significant association of common mental disorders with female gender, low education, poverty, lack of access to running water in the home, and experiencing hunger. Gynecological complaints are associated with an increased risk of mental disorders. Suicide is a major public health problem with women outnumbering men in completed suicides in India. Among barriers to care are low value given to mental health by individuals in society, high prevalence of mental and neurological problems, apathy toward psychosocial aspects of health and development, and chronic lack of resources. DESIGN/METHODS: We developed and implemented a program of care delivery thus (a) targeting the indigent women in the region; (b) integrating mental health care with primary care; (c) making care affordable and accessible; and (d) sustaining the program long term. I also review pertinent articles to demonstrate our success. RESULTS: We provided mental healthcare for the indigent using a successful and vibrant model that overcame hurdles to treat patients from 187 villages in Southern India. Of note are low resource use, and the lack of accessibility, comprehensive care, the use of indigenous case workers and primary care professionals. CONCLUSIONS: Rural mental health care must be culturally congruent, integrate primary care and local community workers for success.