Individual and contextual-level predictors of progression in the bystander intervention model.

The situational model of bystander behavior is a validated 5-step process for understanding intervention in bullying and sexual harassment, yet the individual-level and contextual-level factors that facilitate the progression from one step to the next are not well understood. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether individual characteristics (social-emotional skills, affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and personal attitudes toward bullying and sexual harassment) and contextual-level factors (school climate and perceived peer attitudes toward bullying and sexual harassment) explained the association between subsequent steps of the bystander intervention model. A sample of 788 high school students completed several validated measures of these constructs. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that each step significantly and positively predicted the next step, and the addition of a direct path from accepting responsibility to helping improved model fit. The mediational model indicated that individual-level characteristics had significant direct effects on interpreting bullying and sexual harassment as problems, accepting responsibility, and helping, and indirect effects from noticing the bullying and sexual harassment to all subsequent steps except knowing. In contrast, contextual-level effects contributed to accepting responsibility in an inverse direction.

Bullying Victimization and Adverse Childhood Experiences: Retrospective Reports of Relative Impact on Emotional Distress.

The literature suggests that there is a significant overlap in definition, measurement, and outcomes between trauma and bullying victimization, but the relative impact on current emotional distress of these events has not been explored. The goal of the current study was to explore whether traditional and cyber bullying victimization has a similar negative impact on current emotional disrtresss as other adverse childhood experiences which may also lead to a traumatic response. In addition, this study examined whether the association between bullying victimization and emotional distress is exacerbated when individuals also experience additional ACEs. Retrospective reports from a diverse sample of 576 adults were collected via an online survey. When ranked against other ACEs such as viewing family mental health problems or substance abuse, or verbal, physical, emotional, and sexual victimization not from peers, nearly 30% of participants ranked bullying victimization as having the most negative impact on their levels of emotional distress. Multi-group path analyses indicated that experiencing additional ACEs seems to exacerbate distress caused by bullying and cyber bullying victimization. The current study suggests that bullying victimization may be just as detrimental as other types of ACEs that occur in childhood.

Predictors of Cyberbystander Intervention Among Adolescents.

The purpose of the current study was to examine the association between personal characteristics and the steps of the bystander intervention model (i.e., notice, interpret as emergency, accept responsibility, know how to intervene, and act) applied to cyberbullying. Examining bystander intervention as discrete steps instead of the single act has advantages for training individuals to intervene when they observe these acts of interpersonal violence. The five-step bystander intervention model has been applied to examine bystander intervention in traditional bullying, sexual assault, and drinking behavior, but not cyberbullying. In this study, we examine how specific personal characteristics (social support, social-emotional wellness, cognitive empathy, and affective empathy) are related to each step of the model. Data on students' perceptions of these characteristics and their engagement in the five-step model were collected from 872 sixth-grade through twelfth-grade students ages 11 to 18 in the southeastern area of the United States. Using multi-group path analysis, associations between the characteristics and steps were examined for boys and girls separately. Results indicated that social support was significantly associated with step 2 (interpreting as an emergency), step 4 (know how to intervene), and step 5 (acting). Affective empathy was significantly associated with the first four steps of the model. Social-emotional wellness was only significantly associated with step 1 and cognitive empathy was not significantly associated with any of the steps. These results suggest that it may be important to emphasize positive relationships, affective empathy, and social support for interventions primarily directed at reducing cyberbullying. Training adolescents to intervene in cyberbullying and also to increase these characteristics is important to consider.

Childhood Trauma and College Sexual Harassment: Coping and Resilience as Moderators.

Childhood trauma has been identified as a risk factor for future revictimization, especially in young adulthood. There is an established link between childhood victimization and later sexual assault, but it is unclear if childhood trauma is associated with sexual harassment. Related research has examined coping and resilience as buffers, or moderators, against negative outcomes associated with childhood victimization and sexual assault, so the buffering effect of these variables will be explored for sexual harassment as well. In a sample of 583 young adults age 18-25, self-report measures of childhood trauma, sexual harassment, coping, and resilience, were collected via an online survey tool. Results of a path analysis suggest that, in general, childhood trauma places young adults at a risk for sexual harassment. Resiliency did not moderate the association between childhood trauma and sexual harassment in young adulthood, but coping did moderate this association. Specifically, when coping was high, trauma and sexual harassment were negatively related, but when coping was low to moderate, trauma and sexual harassment were positively related.

Teacher victimization and teachers' subjective well-being: Does school climate matter?

Guided by the job demands-resources model, we examined the multilevel associations between victimization experience with student violence directed against teachers, school climate, and teachers' subjective well-being (i.e., school connectedness and teaching efficacy) among 1711 teachers (7th-12th grade) from 58 middle and high schools in China. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses revealed that teachers who reported more frequent teacher victimization perceived a lower level of teaching efficacy; however, teachers in schools with a higher level of teacher victimization scores at the school level perceived a higher level of teaching efficacy. Although school climate was positively related to teacher well-being at both teacher and school levels, the negative association between teacher victimization and teachers' subjective well-being at the teacher level was exacerbated in schools with a more positive school climate at the school level. The significant cross-level moderating effect of school-level school climate in the association between teacher-level victimization and subjective well-being was consistent with the "healthy context paradox" but contradicted with the "emotion contagion hypothesis." Our findings support the risk influence of teacher victimization and the promotive role of positive school climate on teachers' subjective well-being. Our results also indicate that teachers in schools with a more positive and collective perception of school climate tend to be more attuned to the negative influences of teacher victimization on their subjective well-being than teachers in schools with a less positive and collective perception of school climate.

The role of personal and perceived peer norms in bullying and sexual harassment perpetration.

Bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual harassment can be impacted by both personal attitudes and perceived social norms, although few empirical studies on this topic have been conducted with high school students. In this cross-sectional study, 233 high school students completed measures about personal normative attitudes, perceptions of peer norms, and perpetration of bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual harassment. Consistent with social norms theory, students perceived themselves to hold more prosocial (i.e., antibullying/antisexual harassment) personal normative attitudes than they perceived the typical student in their school to hold (i.e., peer norms). Path analyses revealed that students' personal normative attitudes (e.g., antibullying/antiharassment) were negatively related to their bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual harassment perpetration, although perceived peer norms were negatively related to sexual harassment perpetration only. Multiple-group path analysis revealed significant gender differences. Personal normative attitudes related to females' behavior for all forms of perpetration and only sexual harassment and cyberbullying for males (with more antibullying/antiharassment attitudes relating to less perpetration), although associations for males were stronger. Perceived peer norms related to bullying perpetration for males only. Results are discussed with regard to social-cognitive and peer contextual factors and implications for social norms interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Resiliency in Young Adulthood and Associations among Retrospective Peer Victimization and Internalizing Problems.

The social-ecological diathesis-stress model and related empirical work suggests that individuals who experienced peer victimization in childhood are at risk of revictimization and internalizing problems in young adulthood. The current study examined the association between retrospective and current reports of traditional and cyber victimization and internalizing problems, and the buffering effect of resiliency among 1141 young adults. Results indicated that retrospective traditional victimization was positively associated with current traditional and cyber victimization. Retrospective cyber victimization, however, was positively associated with current cyber victimization only. Retrospective traditional and cyber victimization were positively associated with internalizing problems while controlling for current victimization for both males and females. Resiliency buffered the positive association between retrospective cyber victimization, but not traditional victimization, and current internalizing problems. Findings suggest that retrospective accounts of peer victimization may have a lasting impact on symptoms of depression and anxiety for young adults, regardless of current victimization experiences. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine the associations among revictimization and mental health, and potential buffering mechanisms, among young adults.

Academic enablers as dynamic moderators: Exploring academic enablers and achievement across elementary school.

The purpose of the current study was to advance the understanding of the cross-grade dynamics of academic enablers in three ways: (a) to compare overall levels of academic enablers across children's elementary school years, (b) to determine if the relationship between academic enablers and academic achievement remained consistent across children's elementary school years, and (c) to determine if the interrelationships between academic enablers remained consistent across elementary school. We examined cross-grade dynamics using a sample of elementary-aged children (N = 536) and structural equation modeling methodology to compare primary (K-3rd grade) and intermediate (4th-5th grade) students. After establishing measurement invariance, we tested whether (a) academic enabler means and variances were equivalent for younger and older elementary students, (b) the relationships between academic enablers and academic achievement were equivalent for younger and older elementary students, and (c) the interrelations between academic enablers were equivalent for younger versus older students. The findings revealed few differences in mean levels of academic enablers but several differences in the relationships between academic enablers and academic achievement, as well as academic enabler interrelations across grade groups. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

Childhood Trauma History and Negative Social Experiences in College.

While there is literature documenting the association between childhood trauma and later sexual assault or interpersonal violence victimization, less is known about risk of less severe, but still negative, victimization experiences such as sexual harassment, hazing, and bullying in college. The goal of this study was to explore the association between self-reported childhood trauma (both personally experienced and witnessed) and negative social experiences in college-age adults (e.g., sexual harassment, hazing, and bullying), and the role that internalizing difficulties (i.e., depression and stress) plays in this association. A sample of 620 college-aged adults (ages 18-25) was recruited. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to investigate two models concerning direct and indirect childhood trauma experience. The models demonstrated significant positive relations between experiences of childhood trauma (both direct and indirect) and negative social experiences. Internalizing difficulties (i.e., depression and stress) mediated the relation between indirect childhood trauma and negative social experiences, but it did not significantly mediate the relation between direct childhood trauma and negative social experiences. These findings help to inform prevention efforts and have important implications for both school and community based mental health providers.

Bystanders in bullying: Introduction to the special issue.

Bullying is a problem in most, if not all, contemporary schools around the world and is associated with socioemotional, academic, and physical difficulties for not only the victims of bullying, but also the youth who engage in bullying (Beran et al., 2008; Hawker & Boulton, 2000) and bystanders (Janosz et al., 2008; Juvonen et al., 2003). As the actions of bystanders contribute to the deterrence or maintenance of bullying (Salmivalli, 2010), it is critical to understand those factors that lead bystanders' to either protect the victim or facilitate the bullying. To this end, the articles in this special issue provide novel insights into bystanders of bullying, building upon emerging themes in the literature. This introduction summarizes the contributions of each article, focusing on three themes: (a) the process-oriented nature of the decision to defend victims or reinforce the aggressors, (b) the need to differentiate qualitatively different forms of defending, and (c) the role of classroom and societal norms in bystanders' behaviors. This introduction concludes with a call for a next generation of studies that integrates the lines of research presented in this special issue.

Dimensions of empathy and bystander intervention in bullying in elementary school.

The current study investigated associations among cognitive empathy, affective empathy, internalizing problems, and the five steps of the bystander intervention model (notice bullying events, interpret as an event requiring intervention, accept responsibility for intervening, know how to intervene, and act). Participants included 336 fourth and fifth grade students (58.9% boys) at a school in the Midwest region of the United States. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that greater cognitive empathy was related to noticing bullying events, accepting responsibility to intervene, and knowing how to intervene. Affective empathy was significantly related to the actual act of intervention. Further, significant interactions revealed that affective empathy was positively associated with interpreting bullying as an event that required intervention at low and moderate levels of internalizing problems, but not at high levels of internalizing problems. Overall these findings underscore the need to examine the decision to intervene as the culmination of a series of steps as outlined in the bystander intervention model, with each step potentially influenced by a unique set of precursors.

Social emotional learning (SEL) practices in schools: Effects on perceptions of bullying victimization.

The direct and indirect effects of student perceptions of the extent to which social emotional learning (SEL) instruction is provided on bullying at school and student victimization experiences were examined for 2832 public school students. Students in grades 4-12 completed several subscales of the Delaware School Climate Survey (Bear et al., 2016) at a single timepoint to assess their perceptions of the extent to which SEL instruction is used at their school, their own SEL skills, bullying at school, and personal victimization experiences. Structural equation modeling revealed that students' perceptions of SEL instruction were inversely related to their perceptions of bullying at school and students' personal experiences of victimization. Effects were direct and indirect, through students' self-reported perceptions of their SEL skills. Effects were stronger in late elementary and middle school than in high school. The indirect effects of student perceptions of the extent of SEL instruction on perceived bullying at school through students' SEL skills varied as a function of victimization severity. For students with low self-reported victimization, there was a negative relation between student self-reported SEL skills and perceptions of bullying at school. In contrast, for students who reported experiencing high levels of victimization, students' self-reported SEL skills related positively to perceptions of bullying at school; there was no significant relation between SEL skills and perceptions of bullying at school for students who reported moderate levels of victimization. Implications for teachers' inclusion of SEL instruction and its effects on positive youth development are discussed.

Initial development and validation of the Multidimensional Teacher Victimization Scale.

The Multidimensional Teacher Victimization Scale (MTVS) was developed to provide schools with a comprehensive and psychometrically sound self-report scale to assess teachers' perceptions of teacher-targeted aggressive and violent behaviors perpetrated by students. Using a cross-sectional survey-based research design, data were collected on a sample of 1,711 teachers (seventh to twelfth grade) from 58 schools in China. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that a second-order model with one general Teacher Victimization (TV) factor and six lower-order factors (i.e., Physical TV, Social TV, Verbal TV, Cyber TV, Sexual Harassment, and Personal Property Offenses) best represented the data. Measurement invariance tests showed that the scale's factor structure was consistent across middle and high schools and across gender. Latent mean comparisons suggested that similar levels of teacher victimization were reported across male and female teachers and across middle school and high school teachers. As evidence of the scale's concurrent validity, the total teacher victimization score correlated significantly with teachers' self-reported total burnout score and 3 subscale scores, including emotional exhaustion, accomplishment, and depersonalization. Adequate internal consistency reliability and test-retest reliability were achieved in both the total scale and subscales. Implications for using MTVS as a school-wide violence assessment tool in Chinese schools and other cultural groups are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Teacher victimization by students in China: A multilevel analysis.

The goal of this study is to examine individual-level and school-level predictors of teacher victimization (TV) by students in China based upon the multilevel social-ecological framework. A sample of 1711 teachers (7-12th grade) from 58 schools from eight provinces in mainland China completed measures of teacher victimization (i.e., physical TV, verbal TV, social TV, cyber TV, sexual harassment, and personal property offenses) by students, school-wide bullying and disciplinary practices, and demographics. In the present sample, 25.1% of teachers reported that they experienced at least one of the six forms of victimization from students in the past school year. Prevalence of teacher victimization ranged from 4.0% (physical victimization) to 16.8% (social victimization). Male teachers were more likely to experience all forms of TV and homeroom teachers were more likely than non-homeroom teachers to experience social TV. Schools with fewer students, but higher number of teachers, also had higher levels of TV. Student bullying and punitive disciplinary practices at the teacher level were associated with higher levels of most forms of TV. Implications of these findings are discussed.

The assessment of bystander intervention in bullying: Examining measurement invariance across gender.

Research on bystander intervention in bullying has indicated that prosocial helping behavior is not consistent across gender, with girls engaging in more bystander intervention; however, a search of the literature does not reveal any studies that have examined the validity of bystander intervention measurement across subpopulations. The purpose of the current study was to investigate measurement invariance across gender in both the elementary and middle school versions of the Bystander Intervention Model in Bullying measure among a sample of 682 fourth to eighth grade students (46% girls, 47% low income, 87% White). Results suggest evidence of measurement equivalence of the five-step bystander intervention model across gender in the elementary and middle school samples. Given this, there is evidence that the measure can be used for research and practical purposes in these grade levels and that comparisons between boys and girls are appropriate.

Predicting bystander intervention among middle school students.

Bullying is a prevalent issue in schools, and the importance of involving bystanders in bullying prevention has been recognized; however, there are few studies that examine personal characteristics that relate to the five steps of Latané and Darley's (1970) Bystander Intervention Model (notice the event, interpret as an emergency, accept responsibility, know what to do, and act). This study examined cognitive and affective empathy and perceived popularity and their relation to each of the five steps of the Bystander Intervention Model in Bullying (Nickerson, Aloe, Livingston, & Feeley, 2014), as well as explored if gender changed those relations. With a sample of 346 sixth to eighth grade students, we found a negative relation between perceived popularity and noticing bullying events. For boys, higher affective empathy was associated with a greater likelihood of interpreting bullying as an emergency and accepting responsibility for intervening, but for girls, their perception of bullying as an emergency and accepting responsibility was stable regardless of their level of affective empathy. (PsycINFO Database Record

Peer victimization and social-emotional outcomes: The role of teacher and peer support.

The relation between peer victimization, risk of social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties, and school-based sources of social support for students in elementary and middle school were examined. Participants included 656 students in third to eighth grade from one school district. Results indicated that peer support mediated the relation between peer victimization and risk of social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties, but teacher support did not mediate this relation. Conditional indirect effects analyses revealed that the indirect effect of peer support varied as a function of school level (i.e., intermediate and middle school). The implications and limitations of the current study are discussed, as well as directions for future research.

Social Capital and Bystander Behavior in Bullying: Internalizing Problems as a Barrier to Prosocial Intervention.

Theory and research suggests that individuals with greater social capital (i.e., resources and benefits gained from relationships, experiences, and social interactions) may be more likely to be active, prosocial bystanders in bullying situations. Therefore, the goal of the current study was to examine the association of social capital (social support and social skills) with prosocial bystander behavior, and the role of internalizing problems as a potential barrier to this relation among 299 students (45.8% girls, 95% White) in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Results indicate a positive relation between social capital and prosocial bystander behavior. In addition, internalizing problems were a significant risk factor that may hinder youth-particularly girls-from engaging in defending behavior. Prosocial bystanders are an essential component to prevent and reduce bullying and further research is needed to better understand how to foster prosocial behavior in bullying situations, perhaps by utilizing social capital, related to school bullying.

Bullying participant roles and gender as predictors of bystander intervention.

Although the importance of peer bystanders in bullying has been recognized, there are few studies that examine the phenomenon in relation to Latané and Darley's (1970) classic Bystander Intervention Model, which states that there are five stages of bystander intervention: (i) notice the event; (ii) interpret the event as an emergency that requires assistance; (iii) accept responsibility for intervening; (iv) know how to intervene or provide help; and (v) implement intervention decisions. This study examined preliminary evidence of reliability and validity of the Bystander Intervention Model in Bullying (Nickerson, Aloe, Livingston, & Feeley, 2014), and the extent to which bullying role behavior (bullying, assisting, victimization, defending, and outsider behavior) and gender predicted each step of the model with a sample of 299 middle school students. Results of a Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported a five-factor structure of the measure corresponding to the steps of the model. There was evidence of convergent validity and Cronbach alpha for each subscale exceeded .75. In addition, students who reported defending their peers were more likely to also engage in all five steps of the bystander intervention model, while victims were more likely to notice events, and outsiders were less likely to intervene. Gender differences and gender interactions were also found. Aggr. Behav. 43:281-290, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Effects of peer victimization on psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence.

The purpose of the current study is to investigate the effects of frequency of peer victimization experiences on psychological and academic adjustment during early adolescence, with a focus on testing psychological adjustment as a mediator, as well as differences based on gender and type of victimization. The sample in this short-term longitudinal design study consists of 7th and 8th graders (n = 670, 50% male) from an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse middle school. Victimization was measured using 10 items that assessed frequency of verbal, physical, and relational victimization experiences, and outcomes were assessed with the Behavior Assessment System for Children (2nd ed.) and school records. There was support for gender differences in frequency of peer victimization experiences based on type of victimization. More specifically, boys reported higher levels of physical and verbal victimization, and girls reported higher levels of relational victimization. In addition, there were statistically significant differences between boys and girls on the relation between victimization and anxiety, attendance, and grades, with girls experiencing more maladjustment than boys in response to peer victimization. Finally, results demonstrated no gender differences in indirect effects of psychological adjustment on the relation between peer victimization and academic outcomes, whether victimization was physical, verbal, and relational. These findings highlight the importance of addressing social-emotional functioning as well as peer victimization in the schools for both boys and girls, as both affect students' academic functioning.