Review of the genus Lecithocera Herrich-Schffer (Lepidoptera, Lecithoceridae) in DR Congo, with description of four new species.

The genus Lecithocera Herrich-Schffer, 1853 in the Democratic Republic of theCongo (DR Congo) is reviewed, with descriptions of four new species: Lecithocera katangaica Park, sp. nov., L. seydeliella Park, sp. nov., L. cornutispina Park, sp. nov., and L. lusingensis Park, sp. nov. Five species are already recorded from this country: 1) L. chloroscia Meyrick described from DR Congo; 2) L. lucernata Meyrick previously reported from DR Congo by Ghesquire in 1940; 3) L. trifera Meyrick and 4) L. xanthochalca Meyrick, their generic assignments still remain doubtable; and 5) L. ideologa Meyrick. Lecithocera dicentropa Meyrick, 1938 is synonymized as a junior synonym of L. ideologa Meyrick. Adults and the genitalia of the new species and L. ideologa Meyrick are illustrated, and a lectotype for L. trifera Meyrick is designated herein.

Bioactive Compounds and Quality Evaluation of Red-Pigmented Rice Processed by Germination and Roasting.

Red-pigmented rice was germinated and processed to develop germinated red rice tea, and the changes in physicochemical, bioactive, and microbial properties due to germination and roasting were investigated. The moisture and crude ash contents of red rice decreased after germination and roasting. Crude protein and crude fat contents increased after germination but slightly decreased after roasting. Total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activities (DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities) increased following germination and heat treatment. However, the increased levels of γ-amino butyric acid after germination significantly decreased during the subsequent roasting step. In addition, total bacteria, yeast, and mold counts increased during the germination process but decreased after heat treatment as compared to those in the original grain; Escherichia coli was not detected. Therefore, germination and subsequent roasting could effectively enhance the contents of the most bioactive compounds and maintain microbial stability in red-pigmented rice.

Assessment of biochemical compounds and antioxidant enzyme activity in barley and wheatgrass under water-deficit condition.

Wheatgrass and barley grass are freshly sprouted leaves of wheat and barley seeds and are rich sources of phytochemicals. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of drought stress on the biochemical compounds and antioxidant activities of barley grass and wheatgrass extracts. The grass was cultivated in an organic soil growing medium with different levels of drought stress (a control with 100% water holding capacity (WHC), mild drought stress with 75% WHC, moderate drought stress with 50% WHC, and severe drought stress with 25% WHC) in a growth chamber by controlling temperature (20/15 °C, day/night), light (12/12 h, light/dark; intensity 150 µmol m-2  s-1 with quantum dot light-emitting diodes), and relative humidity (60%) for 7 days. The drought stress showed increased levels of biochemical compounds, especially phenolics, flavonoids, and vitamin C, in both barley grass and wheatgrass extracts. The wheatgrass extracts showed 1.38-1.67 times higher phenolics, flavonoids, and vitamin C contents than the barley grass extracts did. The antioxidant (2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical-scavenging activity, and nitrite-scavenging activity) and antioxidant enzymes (guaiacol peroxidase, catalase, and glutathione reductase) were the highest under severe drought stress in both barley grass and wheatgrass extracts; and the wheatgrass extracts showed 1.20-5.70 times higher antioxidant enzyme activities than the barley grass extracts did. Proper drought-stress treatment of barley grass and wheatgrass may be a convenient and efficient method to increase biochemical compounds and antioxidants in our diet to exploit the related health benefits. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Monopis longella Walker, 1863 (Lepidoptera: Tineidae).

The complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of Monopis longella Walker, 1863 (Lepidoptera: Tineidae) comprises 15,541 bp and contains a typical set of genes and one non-coding region. The gene arrangement of M. longella is unique for Lepidoptera in that it has a trnI-trnM-trnQ sequence in the A + T-rich region and ND2 junction. Unlike most other lepidopteran insects, in which the COI gene has CGA as the start codon, M. longella COI has an ATT codon. Phylogenetic analyses based on the concatenated sequences of 13 protein-coding genes and two rRNA genes, using the Bayesian inference (BI) method, placed M. longella in the Tineidae, sister in position to the cofamilial species, Tineola bisselliella, with the highest nodal support. Tineidae, represented by three species including M. longella, formed a monophyletic group with high support (Bayesian posterior probability = 0.99). Within Tineoidea the sister relationship between Tineidae and Meessiidae was obtained with the highest support, leaving Psychidae occupying the basal lineage of the two families.

Mitochondrial genome of the mason bee, Osmia pedicornis (Hymenopetra: Megachilidae).

The mason bee, Osmia pedicornis Cockerell, 1919, which is importantly used as the pollinator, particularly for apples in Korea. We sequenced the mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of O. pedicornis as an initial study for species identification and subsequent population genetic study. The size of the incomplete genome was 14,505 bp, excluding the trnA, trnC, and the A + T-rich region that were unable to sequence, but including partially sequenced trnM and srRNA. The genome included typical sets of protein-coding genes (PCGs), rRNA genes, and one non-coding region, tRNAs, excluding two unidentified tRNAs. Although positions of the two tRNAs that were not sequenced are unknown the gene arrangement of O. pedicornis mitogenome has the tRNA arrangement, trnM-trnQ-trnI, at the A + T-rich region and ND2 junction that differed from that of previously published O. excavate, which has trnA-trnQ-trnI arrangement at the junction. Phylogenetic analyses were performed using concatenated sequences of the 13 PCGs genes and the maximum likelihood method with the inclusion of a total of 12 mitogenome sequences belonging to three families in the superfamily Apoidea. Current O. pedicornis was placed as the sister to the O. bicornis, with the highest nodal support. The Apidae and Megachilidae were placed as the sister group, with the placement of Colletidae as the basal lineage for the group with the highest nodal support.

Tracing the Invasion and Expansion Characteristics of the Flatid Planthopper, Metcalfa pruinosa (Hemiptera: Flatidae), in Korea Using Mitochondrial DNA Sequences.

The flatid planthopper, Metcalfa pruinosa (Hemiptera: Flatidae), which is an invasive species, is widespread in Korea. We sequenced a fragment of the COI from 536 individuals collected mainly in Korea and the European countries and combined these sequence data with the public data, totaling 830 individuals worldwide. The identification of one shared haplotype only between Korea and the USA, the presence of this haplotype only in the North-West region of Korea, and the highest haplotype diversity in this region suggested that the North-West region is another point of entry in addition to the South-East region, which is the presumed sole point of entry to Korea. Furthermore, it suggested that North-West entry involves the M. pruinosa originating from the USA. In an effort to find further variable regions in the mitochondrial genome, one region provided substantially increased variability compared to that of the fragment of COI. F ST estimation, PCoA, and BAPS analysis, using the concatenated sequences of COI and the newly detected variable region to infer the expansion pattern in Korea, indicates that the main highway, running obliquely between the North-West and South-East regions, appears to be responsible for the current population genetic structure of M. pruinosa in Korea, facilitating gene flow through this highway traffic.

Complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Bekko Tombo Libellula angelina Selys, 1883 (Odonata: Libellulidae).

The dragonfly Libellula angelina Selys, 1883 (Odonata: Libellulidae) has been listed as a critically endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is also an endangered insect in South Korea. We sequenced the whole genome (15,233 bp) of L. angelina species, which included a set of typical genes and one major non-coding AT-rich region with an arrangement identical to that observed in most insect genomes. The A + T-rich region harbored one identical repeat composed of 65 bp and two tRNA-like structures (trnF and trnK-like sequences) with proper anticodon and clover-leaf structures. Phylogenetic reconstruction using the concatenated sequences of 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs) and two rRNAs of the representative odonate mitogenomes utilizing both Bayesian inference and maximum-likelihood methods revealed a strong support for the monophyletic Zygoptera and a moderate to high support for the monophyletic Anisoptera suborders. Unlike that in conventional phylogenetic analysis, a relatively strong sister relationship was revealed between the suborders of Anisozygoptera and Zygoptera.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the silver stripped skipper, Leptalina unicolor (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae).

The silver stripped skipper, Leptalina unicolor Bremer and Grey, 1853 (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), is listed as endangered insect in South Korea. We sequenced the whole genome (15,854 bp) of L. unicolor species using Next-Generation Sequencing method and the subsequent gap-filling method. This genome included a set of typical genes and one major non-coding A + T-rich region, with an arrangement identical to that observed in most lepidopteran genomes. Twelve protein-coding genes (PCGs) had the typical ATN start codon, whereas COI had the atypical CGA codon that is frequently found in the start region of the lepidopteran COI. The 757-bp long A + T-rich region was the second largest among completely sequenced Hesperiidae, which ranged from 234 to 793 bp. Phylogenetic reconstruction was performed by maximum-likelihood method using the concatenated sequences of 13 PCGs and two rRNAs of available species of Hesperiidae, including that of L. unicolor (a total of 28 species). The resulting phylogeny provided strong support for monophyletic Heteropterinae in which L. unicolor belongs, with the highest nodal support and a sister relationship between current L. unicolor and co-subfamilial species Carterocephalus silvicola with a bootstrap value of 91%.

Geographic variation in the spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Diptera: Drosophilidae), based on mitochondrial DNA sequences.

The spotted-wing drosophila (SWD), Drosophila suzukii (Diptera: Drosophilidae), is an economically damaging pest that feeds on most thin-skinned fruits. It was originally native to a few Asian countries, including Korea, but is now found in North America and Europe. In this study, we sequenced portions of the mitochondrial (mt) COI and ND4 genes from a total of 195 individuals collected mainly from Korea. We then combined GenBank-registered COI sequences from all ancestral-range and introduced-range populations with our own COI data to assess the worldwide diversity, divergence, and relatedness of SWD haplotypes. A total of 139 haplotypes were obtained from the concatenated COI and ND4 sequences. Most haplotypes were confined to single localities, but 12 of them were found in more than two localities, and one haplotype (SWDCN61) was found from Korea to Canada. A dataset combining GenBank sequences with our own data identified a total of 94 worldwide COI haplotypes with a maximum sequence divergence (MSD) of 5.433% (32 bp). Although most haplotypes were found in only a single country, a few haplotypes were found commonly in China, Korea, and Japan; these occurred at a higher frequency and were often involved in introductions. A rough estimate of genetic diversity in each country showed higher diversity in ancestral distributional ranges, but the invasion over Asian countries seems to have been substantial because haplotype diversity was only 2.35 to 3.97-fold lower in the U.S.A, Canada, and Italy than that in the populations' ancestral ranges.

Complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Cicindela anchoralis Chevrolat, 1845 (Coleoptera: Carabidae).

The tiger beetle, Cicindela anchoralis Chevrolat, 1845 (Coleoptera: Carabidae), has been listed as an Endangered insect in South Korea. We sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of this organism (16,388 bp). The genome includes a typical set of genes (13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 2 rRNA genes, and 22 tRNA genes) and 1 non-coding region with an arrangement identical to that observed in most insect genomes. Twelve PCGs had the typical ATN start codon, whereas ND1 had the atypical TTG codon. The AT-rich region is 1629-bp long, composed of 80.0% A + T nucleotides, and has no long repeat sequences. Phylogenetic analyses with concatenated sequences of the 13 PCGs and 2 rRNA genes, using the Bayesian inference (BI) method, placed C. anchoralis as a sister to the within-subfamilial species Habrodera capensis, with the highest nodal support presented by both BI and maximum likelihood (ML) methods. Three subfamilies represented by more than one species (Cicindelinae, Harpalinae, and Carabinae) were all determined by both BI and ML analyses to form strong monophyletic groups.

Complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Macromia daimoji Okumura, 1949 (Odonata: Macromiidae).

The dragonfly Macromia daimoji Okumura, 1949 (Odonata: Macromiidae) has been listed as an Endangered insect in South Korea. We sequenced the complete 15,198 bp mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of this organism, which is the first mitogenome sequence reported from the family Macromiidae. The genome includes a typical set of genes [13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 2 rRNA genes, and 22 tRNA genes) and one non-coding region with an arrangement identical to that observed in most insect genomes. Phylogenetic analyses using concatenated sequences of the 13 PCGs and 2 rRNA genes using the Bayesian inference (BI) method placed Macromiidae, represented by M. daimoji, as a sister group to Libellulidae with the highest nodal support [Bayesian posterior probabilities (BPP) = 1]. Unlike conventional phylogenetic analysis, the suborders Anisozygoptera and Zygoptera formed a strong sister group (BPP =1), justifying the use of different molecular markers for phylogenetic analysis.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the lappet moth, Kunugia undans (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae): genomic comparisons among macroheteroceran superfamilies

Abstract The mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) characteristics of the monotypic Lasiocampoidea are largely unknown, because only limited number of mitogenomes is available from this superfamily. In this study, we sequenced the complete mitogenome of the lappet moth, Kunugia undans (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) and compared it to those of Lasiocampoidea and macroheteroceran superfamilies (59 species in six superfamilies). The 15,570-bp K. undans genome had one additional trnR that was located between trnA and trnN loci and this feature was unique in Macroheterocera, including Lasiocampoidea. Considering that the two trnR copies are located in tandem with proper secondary structures and identical anticodons, a gene duplication event might be responsible for the presence of the two tRNAs. Nearly all macroheteroceran species, excluding Lasiocampoidea, have a spacer sequence (1-34 bp) at the trnS2 and ND1 junction, but most lasiocampid species, including K. undans, have an overlap at the trnS2 and ND1 junction, which represents a different genomic feature in Lasiocampoidea. Nevertheless, a TTAGTAT motif, which is typically detected in Macroheterocera at the trnS2 and ND1 junction, was also detected in all Lasiocampoidea. In summary, the general mitogenome characteristics of Lasiocampoidea did not differ greatly from the remaining macroheteroceran superfamilies, but it did exhibit some unique features.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the lappet moth, Kunugia undans (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae): genomic comparisons among macroheteroceran superfamilies.

The mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) characteristics of the monotypic Lasiocampoidea are largely unknown, because only limited number of mitogenomes is available from this superfamily. In this study, we sequenced the complete mitogenome of the lappet moth, Kunugia undans (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) and compared it to those of Lasiocampoidea and macroheteroceran superfamilies (59 species in six superfamilies). The 15,570-bp K. undans genome had one additional trnR that was located between trnA and trnN loci and this feature was unique in Macroheterocera, including Lasiocampoidea. Considering that the two trnR copies are located in tandem with proper secondary structures and identical anticodons, a gene duplication event might be responsible for the presence of the two tRNAs. Nearly all macroheteroceran species, excluding Lasiocampoidea, have a spacer sequence (1-34 bp) at the trnS2 and ND1 junction, but most lasiocampid species, including K. undans, have an overlap at the trnS2 and ND1 junction, which represents a different genomic feature in Lasiocampoidea. Nevertheless, a TTAGTAT motif, which is typically detected in Macroheterocera at the trnS2 and ND1 junction, was also detected in all Lasiocampoidea. In summary, the general mitogenome characteristics of Lasiocampoidea did not differ greatly from the remaining macroheteroceran superfamilies, but it did exhibit some unique features.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the pumpkin fruit fly, Bactrocera depressa (Diptera: Tephritidae).

In this study, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of the pumpkin fruit fly, Bactrocera depressa (Diptera: Tephritidae), which is an economically damaging pest of pumpkin and turban squash. The 15,832-bp-long complete mitogenome of the species consists of a typical set of genes, with an arrangement typical of insects. Of the 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 12 have a typical ATN start codon, whereas the COI gene begins with TCG, which has been identified as the start codon for all Bactrocera COI genes. The 1004-bp A + T-rich region of B. depressa is the third longest, after B. minax and B. scutellata, of the Bactrocera species for which the whole mitogenome has been sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis using the 13 PCGs of Bactrocera species indicated that B. depressa is a sister to the sister group containing B. tau and B. cucurbitae with the highest nodal support (Bayesian posterior probability =1.0).

Complete mitochondrial genome of Zeuzera multistrigata Moore, 1881 (Lepidoptera: Cossidae).

We sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of Zeuzera multistrigata Moore, 1881 (Lepidoptera: Cossidae), which is an economically damaging pest to a diverse range of Casuarina trees. The 15,260-bp-long mitogenome of this species consists of a typical set of genes, with an arrangement typical of ditrysian Lepidoptera. Of the 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 12 have a typical ATN start codon, whereas the COI gene begins with CGA. Ten of the 13 PCGs end with TAA, whereas COI, COII, and ND5 ended with an incomplete termination codon, T. Phylogenetic analysis using 13 PCGs of available superfamilies in Apoditrysia indicated that Z. multistrigata, belonging to the superfamily Cossoidea, formed a sister group with the confamilial species Eogystia hippophaecolus; however, the nodal support for this group was low (46%). As more mitogenomes from ancient groups of Lepidoptera become available, further robust phylogenetic analysis and inference will be possible.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the endangered Lycaenid butterfly Shijimiaeoides divina (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae).

The lycaenid butterfly, Shijimiaeoides divina (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), has been listed in Korea as a class II endangered wild species since 2012. Therefore, the mitogenome sequence is necessary to better understand genomic characteristics of the species. The 15 259-bp complete mitochondrial genome of the species consists of a typical set of genes, including 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, and 22 tRNA genes, and 1 major non-coding AT-rich region, with an arrangement typical of Ditrysia (trnM-trnI-trnQ between the AT-rich region and ND2). The 379-bp A + T-rich region has a trnK-like sequence. Phylogenetic analysis using 13 protein-coding genes of the families Lycaenidae and Riodinidae with outgroups from species in Nymphalidae indicates that each family is a strong monophyletic group and that S. divina, belonging to Polyommatinae, is correctly placed as a sister to the within-subfamilial species Cupido argiades with the highest support.

Complete mitochondrial genomes of two gelechioids, Mesophleps albilinella and Dichomeris ustalella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), with a description of gene rearrangement in Lepidoptera.

We sequenced the entire mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of two gelechioids, Mesophleps albilinella and Dichomeris ustalella, and compared their genome organization and sequence composition to those of available gelechioid mitogenomes for an enhanced understanding of Gelechioidea genomic characteristics. We compared all available lepidopteran mitogenome arrangements, including that of M. albilinella, which is unique in Gelechioidea, to comprehend the extensiveness and mechanisms of gene rearrangement in Lepidoptera. The genomes of M. albilinella and D. ustalella are 15,274 and 15,410 bp in size, respectively, with the typical sets of mitochondrial (mt) genes. The COI gene begins with CGA (arginine) in all sequenced gelechioids, including M. albilinella and D. ustalella, reinforcing the feature as a synapomorphic trait, at least in the Gelechioidea. Each 353- and 321-bp long A + T-rich region of M. albilinella and D. ustalella contains one (D. ustalella) or two (M. albilinella) tRNA-like structures. The M. albilinella mitogenome has a unique gene arrangement among the Gelechioidea: ARNESF (the underline signifies an inverted gene) at the ND3 and ND5 junction, as opposed to the ARNSEF that is found in ancestral insects. An extensive search of available lepidopteran mitogenomes, including that of M. albilinella, turned up six rearrangements that differ from those of ancestral insects. Most of the rearrangements can be explained by the tandem duplication-random loss model, but inversion, which requires recombination, is also found in two cases, including M. albilinella. Excluding the MIQ rearrangement at the A + T-rich region and ND2 junction, which is found in nearly all Ditrysia, most of the remaining rearrangements found in Lepidoptera appear to be independently derived in that they are automorphic at several taxonomic scales, although current mitogenomic data are limited, particularly for congeneric data.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the endangered flower chafer Osmoderma opicum (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae).

The flower chafer Osmoderma opicum (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) has been listed in Korea as a class II endangered wild species. The 15 341-bp complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of the species consists of a typical set of genes (13 protein-coding genes [PCGs], two rRNA genes and 22 tRNA genes) and the A + T-rich region, with an arrangement typical of insects. The 761-bp long A + T-rich region of O. opicum has a microsatellite-like sequence consisting of (TA)6, along with a poly-T (12 bp) and a poly-A (16 bp) stretch, but does not have a longer repeat sequence often found in other Scarabaeidae. Twelve PCGs started with the typical ATN codon, whereas the COI started with AAC, which has been designated as the start codon for the coleopteran suborder Polyphaga. Phylogenetic analysis using 11 PCGs from Scarabaeidae showed that O. opicum was placed as the sister to the within-subfamilial species Myodermum sp., forming the monophyletic group, the subfamily Cetoniinae, with moderate to high nodal support.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the gelechioid Stathmopoda auriferella (Lepidoptera: Stathmopodidae).

Although Gelechioidea is the second most species-rich group of Lepidoptera, comprising ∼18,000 species, mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) have been sequenced from only eight species. In this study, we determined the complete mitogenomic sequence of the gelechioid Stathmopoda auriferella (Lepidoptera: Stathmopodidae) for a future phylogenetic study of Lepidoptera. The 15,456-bp-long S. auriferella genome was the largest among sequenced gelechioids. The cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene had a CGA start codon as most other lepidopteran species do, including the eight gelechioid species for which datasets are available. An A + T-rich region (375 bp in length) harbored blocks of conserved sequences, which are typically found in lepidopteran insects. Bayesian inference (BI) phylogeny using 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs) indicated that S. auriferella belongs to the Stathmopodidae family and is grouped together with the within-familial species Hieromantis kurokoi with a strong nodal support (Bayesian posterior probabilities =0.95).

Complete mitochondrial genome of the gelechioid Hieromantis kurokoi (Lepidoptera: Stathmopodidae).

Although the Gelechioidea is the second most species-rich group of Lepidoptera, comparatively few mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) have been sequenced in this superfamily. Here, we determined the complete mitogenomic sequence of the gelechioid Hieromantis kurokoi (Lepidoptera: Stathmopodidae) as the basis for a future study of the phylogeny of butterflies and moths (clade Ditrysia). The H. kurokoi genome was 15,208 bp with a typical set of genes (13 protein-coding genes [PCGs], two rRNA genes and 22 tRNA genes) and one major non-coding A + T-rich region. The cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene had a CGA start codon, which is the start codon for this gene in the majority of lepidopteran species, whereas other PCGs began with an ATN codon. A 360 bp-long A + T-rich region harbored the blocks of conserved sequences that are typically found in lepidopteran insects. Phylogenetic analysis using the 13 PCGs and Bayesian inference (BI) and maximum-likelihood (ML) methods indicated that H. kurokoi belonged to the family Stathmopodidae and grouped together with the within-familial species Atrijuglans hetaohei with the highest nodal support (BI, 1.0; ML, 100%).