Mind-wandering increases in frequency over time during task performance: An individual-participant meta-analytic review.

Attention has a seemingly inevitable tendency to turn inward toward our thoughts. Mind-wandering refers to moments when this inward focus diverts attention away from the current task-at-hand. Mind-wandering is thought to be ubiquitous, having been estimated to occur between 30% and 50% of our waking moments. Yet, it is unclear whether this frequency is similar within-task performance contexts and unknown whether mind-wandering systematically increases with time-on-task for a broad range of tasks. We conducted a systematic literature search and individual participant data meta-analysis of rates of occurrence of mind-wandering during task performance. Our search located 68 research reports providing almost a half-million total responses to experience sampling mind-wandering probes from more than 10,000 unique individuals. Latent growth curve models estimated the initial occurrence of mind-wandering and linear change in mind-wandering over sequential probes for each study sample, and effects were summarized using multivariate meta-analysis. Our results confirm that mind-wandering increases in frequency over time during task performance, implicating mind-wandering in characteristic within-task psychological changes, such as increasing boredom and patterns of worsening behavioral performance with time-on-task. The systematic search and meta-analysis provide the most comprehensive assessment of normative rates of mind-wandering during task performance reported to date. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Paying attention to attention: a program evaluation of faculty-delivered mindfulness-based attention training to optimize wellness and professionalism in medical students.

BACKGROUND: As physician distress rises, medical schools must provide programs to counter such distress at the earliest stages of training. Mindfulness training (MT) is one intervention that can alleviate stress during medical school. However, framing MT around wellness alone misses the opportunity to connect core cognitive and psychological capacities strengthened by MT to professional goals and skill acquisition inherent to successful medical training. Here, we highlight how the attentional components of MT align with students' goals of becoming attending physicians while promoting academic, psychological, and interpersonal flourishing. MT courses that focus on strengthening attentional capacities can intuitively link academic and professional development with wellness, appealing to a wide array of students. METHODS: We iteratively recontextualized an existing short-form mindfulness training program for high-stress pre-professionals, known as Mindfulness Based Attention Training (MBAT), to the medical school context (MBAT-Rx). MBAT-Rx was offered by physician trainers to first-year medical students at Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University as a tool for improving study habits and focus in addition to the development of both self-care and patient care strategies. MBAT-Rx consists of weekly, two-hour sessions over four weeks, with 10-15 min of daily mindfulness practice between sessions. At the end of the four weeks, students submitted voluntary program evaluation responses detailing their experience of the program. RESULTS: Optional program evaluation responses (n = 67) highlight that students found the program to be useful for their academic success and ability to pay attention, their interpersonal relationships, and their psychological health. By framing MT as an opportunity to boost core attentional capacities and connecting this to professional and academic goals in addition to wellness, MBAT-Rx appealed to a wide variety of students. CONCLUSIONS: Our ongoing work suggests that framing MT as both a professional development and wellness promotion tool, taught by physicians themselves, and structured around students' time demands, may be a successful model for medical schools looking to increase the impact of their mindfulness offerings. Such programs are needed to equip medical students to navigate the demands of a challenging healthcare training landscape.

Online mindfulness training for older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: a randomized controlled trial using a multi-method assessment approach.

OBJECTIVES: The COVID-19 pandemic drastically accelerated the need for studies examining the effectiveness of programs to bolster psychological well-being, particularly for at-risk groups, such as older adults (OAs). Mindfulness Training (MT) has been suggested as a well-suited program for this purpose. The present study examined the impact of a 4-week online, trainer-led MT course tailored for OAs during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Fifty-three OAs were randomly assigned to either Group A or Group B. Group A received the online MT course during the 4-week interval between the first (T1) and second (T2) testing sessions, while Group B received the same MT course during the interval between T2 and the third testing session (T3). The testing sessions included measures of mindfulness, emotional well-being, psychological health, and cognitive performance. In addition, a very brief survey was sent every week during the T1-T2 and T2-T3 intervals to assess weekly emotional well-being. RESULTS: The findings revealed that MT may improve some, albeit not all, aspects of mindfulness and well-being, while no significant results were noted for outcomes measuring psychological health and cognitive performance. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are discussed in the context of the evolving COVID-19 situation.

Impact of mindfulness training and yoga on injury and pain-related impairment: a group randomized trial in basic combat training.

Introduction: Service members are at risk for pain-related difficulties in functioning and physical injury. Previous studies suggest that mindfulness training (MT) and yoga may prevent these outcomes. The present study was designed to determine the impact of MT and yoga on the health, pain, and injury of Army trainees completing 10 weeks of basic combat training (BCT). Methods: Platoons (≈40 trainees per platoon) were randomized to MT and yoga or training-as-usual in October to December 2020 at a large installation in the US. Self-reported outcomes were health, pain level, and pain impact on training, sleep, mood, and stress. Objective outcomes were injury-related medical encounters and number of diagnoses. The trial was registered at ClinicalTrials. Gov (NCT05550610). Results: Intervention trainees reported significantly better health (OR = 1.05, 95% CI [1.00, 1.10]) and less impact of pain on training (OR = 0.81, 95% CI [0.74, 0.90]), sleep (OR = 0.88, 95% CI [0.81, 0.95]), mood (OR = 0.86, 95% CI [0.78, 0.96]), and stress (OR = 0.88, 95% CI [0.79, 0.98]). There was no significant difference in injury-related medical encounters (AOR = 0.70, 95% CI [0.48, 1.03]), but intervention trainees had fewer diagnoses (OR = 0.67, 95% CI [0.47, 0.95]) and were 30% less likely to have a first medical encounter at any time during BCT. This difference emerged 3 weeks into BCT. Discussion: A combined MT and yoga intervention resulted in better trainee health. The US Army and other organizations requiring resilience under extreme stress should consider implementing MT and yoga to offset risks to employee health.

The role of affective interference and mnemonic load in the dynamic adjustment in working memory.

The amount of cognitive control required during a task may fluctuate over the course of performing a task. The dynamic upregulation of cognitive control has been proposed to occur in response to conflict or in response to the need for additional control during demanding cognitive tasks. Specifically, upregulation in cognitive control results in improved performance on trials that follow more demanding trials. Recent work has demonstrated that upregulation occurs during following trials with high (vs. low) mnemonic load and negative (vs. neutral) affective interference during working memory tasks. Although dynamic upregulation appears to be a robust phenomenon, less is known about individual difference factors that may alter the likelihood to engage in upregulation as a result of a signal to increase cognitive control. The current study attempted to replicate prior findings that suggest upregulation may occur following higher load trials or affective interference during a working memory task. Further, the study examined anxiety, depressive symptomatology, working memory capacity, mood, and dispositional mindfulness and possible moderators for upregulation of cognitive control. Participants (N = 150) completed a delayed recognition working memory task with mnemonic load (High vs. Low) and affective interference (Negative vs. Neutral) parametrically manipulated. Participants completed measures of the individual difference factors. The current findings replicate prior work demonstrating an upregulation of cognitive control following high load trials and negative affective interference. Individual difference factors did not moderate the upregulation findings, suggesting that upregulation is a robust phenomenon that can be triggered by both affective interference and mnemonic load.

Optimizing Performance and Mental Skills With Mindfulness-Based Attention Training: Two Field Studies With Operational Units.

INTRODUCTION: Mental skills such as focusing attention and managing emotions are essential for optimal performance in high-stress occupations. Studies with military samples have demonstrated that mindfulness training (MT) led to improved computer-based cognitive performance. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To examine the impact of MT on operational performance, mental skills, and psychological health, a short-form program, Mindfulness-Based Attention Training (MBAT), was delivered to active duty soldiers as part of two randomized trials. Participants in study 1 (n = 121) and study 2 (n = 77) were randomized to one of three conditions: MT with proctored practice, MT with unproctored practice, or a waitlist control. Weekly 2-hour MBAT sessions were offered to participants in both MT conditions for 4 weeks. Beyond these sessions, participants also engaged in mindfulness practice that was proctored (within the occupational context) or unproctored (left up to the individual) for four subsequent weeks. RESULTS: Overall, the frequency of mindfulness practice was generally associated with better performance and improvements in mental skills. In study 1, those who practiced 3 or more days per week performed better on marksmanship under physical stress and reported fewer attentional lapses, less emotion regulation difficulties, greater mental toughness, and higher self-reported mindfulness compared to those who did not practice. In study 2, the frequency of mindfulness practice was associated with fewer attentional lapses and emotion regulation difficulties. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with prior findings, results suggest that regular engagement in MT practice may help to optimize operational performance and improve mental skills in military cohorts.

Investigating the protective effects of mindfulness-based attention training on mind wandering in applied settings.

Introduction: Mind wandering, a phenomenon in which attention drifts away from the task-at-hand, is associated with deleterious effects on performance and well-being. As such, efforts to curb mind wandering are warranted. Recently, mindfulness training (MT) has been found to protect against mind wandering. Yet, many MT programs are at risk of falling off the implementation cliff due to challenges implementing these programs in applied settings. To mitigate against this, early-stage research in small convenience samples may be necessary to spur stakeholder engagement and collaboration. Herein, the effects of MT on mind wandering were examined via an internal meta-analysis of early-stage studies of a manualized, context-adaptable short-form MT program, referred to as Mindfulness-Based Attention Training (MBAT). Methods: Five longitudinal studies (N = 304) were conducted in a variety of organizational cohorts. Self-reported mind wandering and meta-awareness, as well as accuracy (A') and response time variability (intra-individual coefficient of variation, ICV) during performance of the sustained attention to response task (SART) were assessed at baseline (T1) and 4 weeks later (T2) in MBAT and no-training participants. Results: Standardized mean change (SMC) from T1 to T2 significantly differed between MBAT and no-training groups for mind wandering (ΔSMC = -0.387, p < 0.001), meta-awareness (ΔSMC = -0.374, p < 0.001), and ICV (ΔSMC = -0.376, p = 0.043), suggesting potential protective effects in self-reported and performance-based metrics of mind wandering. Discussion: These results serve as preliminary proof-of-concept support for MBAT's protective effects on mind wandering. Further, they suggest that MBAT is amenable to implementation across a variety of applied and organizational settings and warrants additional research employing larger sample sizes in randomized controlled designs.

Higher self-reported posttraumatic stress symptoms are associated with poorer working memory in active-duty service members.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress is a significant issue facing military service members and can negatively impact working memory (WM), which is critical for performance success. Yet, few studies have examined the link between self-reported posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and WM performance in active-duty military cohorts. The present study utilized hierarchical linear modeling to examine this relationship by considering PTSS and underlying symptom clusters as well as WM demands related to load and affective interference in an active-duty military cohort (N = 515). METHOD: PTSS severity was assessed via the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist-military version (PCL-M), and behavioral performance was measured on a delayed-recognition WM task that manipulated mnemonic load (low vs. high load) and affective interference (negative combat-related vs. neutral civilian images presented during the delay interval). RESULTS: Examination of the relationship between PCL-M and WM performance demonstrated that higher total PCL-M scores (especially higher numbing and hyperarousal symptoms) were associated with poorer WM task performance, b = -0.083, p = .003, 95% CI [-0.137, -0.029], even after controlling for combat experiences and previous deployment status. This relationship was stronger on trials with negative, b = -0.114, p < .001, 95% CI [-0.175, -0.054], compared to neutral distracters, b = -0.052, p = .093, 95% CI [-0.112, 0.009]. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that PTSS are associated with performance costs on a WM task with combat-related negative distracters. Broadly, these findings highlight the need to address PTSS in active-duty cohorts and further investigate vulnerabilities related to cognitive demands and psychological health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Associations between self-reported spontaneous thought and temporal sequences of EEG microstates.

Thought dynamically evolves from one moment to the next even in the absence of external stimulation. The extent to which patterns of spontaneous thought covary with time-varying fluctuations in intrinsic brain activity is of great interest but remains unknown. We conducted novel analyses of data originally reported by Portnova et al. (2019) to examine associations between the intrinsic dynamics of EEG microstates and self-reported thought measured using the Amsterdam Resting-State Questionnaire (ARSQ). Accordingly, the millisecond fluctuations of microstates were associated with specific dimensions of thought. We evaluated the reliability of these findings by combining our results with those of another study using meta-analysis. Importantly, we extended this investigation using multivariate methods to evaluate multidimensional thought profiles of individuals and their links to sequences of successive microstates. Thought profiles were identified based on hierarchical clustering of ARSQ ratings and were distinguished in terms of the temporal ordering of successive microstates based on sequence analytic methods. These findings demonstrate the relevance of assessing spontaneous thought for understanding intrinsic brain activity and the novel use of sequence analysis for characterizing microstate dynamics. Integrating the phenomenological view from within remains crucial for understanding the functional significance of intrinsic large-scale neurodynamics.

Self-reported Mind Wandering and Response Time Variability Differentiate Prestimulus Electroencephalogram Microstate Dynamics during a Sustained Attention Task.

Brain activity continuously and spontaneously fluctuates during tasks of sustained attention. This spontaneous activity reflects the intrinsic dynamics of neurocognitive networks, which have been suggested to differentiate moments of externally directed task focus from episodes of mind wandering. However, the contribution of specific electrophysiological brain states and their millisecond dynamics to the experience of mind wandering is still unclear. In this study, we investigated the association between electroencephalogram microstate temporal dynamics and self-reported mind wandering. Thirty-six participants completed a sustained attention to response task in which they were asked to respond to frequently occurring upright faces (nontargets) and withhold responses to rare inverted faces (targets). Intermittently, experience sampling probes assessed whether participants were focused on the task or whether they were mind wandering (i.e., off-task). Broadband electroencephalography was recorded and segmented into a time series of brain electric microstates based on data-driven clustering of topographic voltage patterns. The strength, prevalence, and rate of occurrence of specific microstates differentiated on- versus off-task moments in the prestimulus epochs of trials preceding probes. Similar associations were also evident between microstates and variability in response times. Together, these findings demonstrate that distinct microstates and their millisecond dynamics are sensitive to the experience of mind wandering.

Experience sampling of the degree of mind wandering distinguishes hidden attentional states.

Experience sampling of attentional states has consistently demonstrated that mind wandering is a frequent and disruptive obstacle when one must sustain attention during continuous task performance. Yet, methods commonly used to assess the subjective experience of mind wandering may conflate several potential sources of meaningful variation in individuals' degree of task engagement. In the present study, we examined evidence for distinct and identifiable patterns in subjective reports of the degree of task-related attentional focus during a sustained attention task in a large sample of adults (N = 537). Experience sampling probes embedded in the task assessed task-related focus using a continuum of response ratings ranging from 1 (on-task) to 6 (off-task). Participants used a range of probe response options in categorizing their current attentional state, and the continuum of probe ratings differentiated patterns of behavioral performance in the moments preceding probes. Markov-chain modeling of the categorical time series sequence of probe ratings further revealed distinct and behaviorally relevant hidden states underlying probe rating behavior. We replicated these findings in two additional independent data sets. Collectively, these findings suggest that three or more hidden attentional states best account for subjective ratings of task-related focus. The implications of these findings for models of sustained attention and mind wandering are discussed.

Memory load, distracter interference, and dynamic adjustments in cognitive control influence working memory performance across the lifespan.

Capacity-limited working memory (WM) systems have been known to degrade in older age. In line with inhibition-deficit theories of aging, WM deficits in older individuals have been attributed to failures in the ability to suppress the processing of task irrelevant, distracting information. Yet, other cognitive mechanisms underlying age-related WM deficits have been observed, including failures in WM with increasing memory load. Moreover, both distracting information and high memory load have been shown to trigger adjustments in cognitive control leading to subsequent performance benefits on later trials. However, no studies have characterized these dynamic adjustments across the life span or examined their contribution to WM deficits in older adults. We investigated the contribution of distracter interference, memory load, and dynamic adjustments in cognitive control on WM performance in 505 individuals with ages ranging from adolescence to older adulthood. Distracter interference and memory load were parametrically manipulated (high vs. low) in a delayed-recognition WM task, and accuracy was examined as a function of current (N) and previous (N-1) trial demands. Curvilinear models revealed that performance differs over the life span depending on specific WM task demands. Specifically, the ability to suppress task irrelevant distracters was greater in adulthood compared with adolescence, but worse in later life. In contrast, memory load resulted in performance deficits with increasing age, which were exacerbated when high load and interference demands combined. Dynamic adjustments in cognitive control was spared, in part, with memory-load triggered sequential trial effects maintained across the life span, but interference-triggered benefits observable up to middle age. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Is resilience trainable? An initial study comparing mindfulness and relaxation training in firefighters.

Motivated by the growing interest in promoting resilience in first responders and other professionals who face threatening professional circumstances, the current study investigated the effectiveness of offering a short-form mindfulness training (MT) program to firefighters. The overarching question was to determine if psychological and cognitive markers of resilience are bolstered via MT. Firefighters (n = 121) were assigned to an MT program (n = 42), an active-comparison relaxation training program (RT, n = 31), or served as no-training controls (NTC, n = 48). Both the MT and RT programs were contextualized for firefighters and consisted of 4, 2-h training sessions delivered over 4 weeks by the same expert trainer, as well as 10-15 min of daily out-of-class practice. Intent-to-treat analyses revealed a significantly greater increase in psychological resilience from baseline (T1) to post-training (T2) in firefighters who received MT vs. RT or no training. In addition, positive affect and objective attentional task performance demonstrated a greater increase over time (from T1 to T2) with more days per week of out-of-class practice for the MT group but not for the RT group. These results suggest that MT moreso than RT bolsters markers of resilience in firefighters.

Dynamic brain network configurations during rest and an attention task with frequent occurrence of mind wandering.

Mind wandering (MW) has become a prominent topic of neuroscientific investigation due to the importance of understanding attentional processes in our day-to-day experiences. Emerging evidence suggests a critical role for three large-scale brain networks in MW: the default network (DN), the central executive network (CEN), and the salience network (SN). Advances in analytical methods for neuroimaging data (i.e., dynamic functional connectivity, DFC) demonstrate that the interactions between these networks are not static but dynamically fluctuate over time (Chang & Glover, 2010, NeuroImage, 50(1), 81-98). While the bulk of the evidence comes from studies involving resting-state functional MRI, a few studies have investigated DFC during a task. Direct comparison of DFC during rest and task with frequent MW is scarce. The present study applies the DFC method to neuroimaging data collected from 30 participants who completed a resting-state run followed by two runs of sustained attention to response task (SART) with embedded probes indicating a high prevalence of MW. The analysis identified five DFC states. Differences between rest and task were noted in the frequency of three DFC states. One DFC state characterized by negative DN-CEN/SN connectivity along with positive CEN-SN connectivity was more frequently observed during task vs. rest. Two DFC states, one of which was characterized by weaker connectivity between networks, were more frequently observed during rest than task. These findings suggest that the dynamic relationships between brain networks may vary as a function of whether ongoing cognitive activity unfolds in an "unconstrained" manner during rest or is "constrained" by task demands.

Does mindfulness training help working memory 'work' better?

There has been a proliferation of mindfulness training (MT) programs offered across a multitude of settings, including military, business, sports, education, and medicine. As such, ascertaining training effectiveness and determining best practices for program delivery are of the utmost importance. MT is often introduced to promote an array of desired effects from better mood, better leadership and management skills, to improved workplace or academic performance. Despite the diversity of factors motivating adoption of MTs, it can be argued from a cognitive training perspective that there should be uniformity in the core cognitive processes strengthened via repeated and systematic engagement in MT exercises. Herein, we explore the hypothesis that MT promotes salutary changes in the brain's working memory (WM) system. We review prior research and highlight aspects of MT programs that may be critical for achieving beneficial WM effects. Further, we suggest that given the centrality of WM in core processes such as emotion regulation, problem solving, and learning, MT programs capable of achieving WM benefits may be best positioned to promote other desired outcomes (e.g. reductions in negative mood). For these reasons, we recommend that more studies include WM metrics in their evaluation of MT programs.

Mindfulness training as cognitive training in high-demand cohorts: An initial study in elite military servicemembers.

Cognitive ability is a key selection criterion for entry into many elite professions. Herein, we investigate whether mindfulness training (MT) can enhance cognitive performance in elite military forces. The cognitive effects of a short-form 8-h MT program contextualized for military cohorts, referred to as Mindfulness-Based Attention Training (MBAT), were assessed. Servicemembers received either a 2-week (n=40) or 4-week (n=36) version of MBAT or no training (NTC, n=44). Sustained attention and working memory task performance along with self-reported cognitive failures were assessed at study onset (T1) and 8-weeks later (T2). In contrast to both the NTC and 2-week MT groups, the 4-week MT group significantly improved over time on attention and working memory outcome measures. Among the 4-week more so than the 2-week MBAT participants, working memory performance improvements were correlated with their amount of out-of-class MT practice. In addition to these group-wise effects, all participants receiving MBAT decreased in their self-reported cognitive failures from T1 to T2. Importantly, none of these improvements were related to self-reported task motivation. Together, these results suggest that short-form MT, when delivered over a 4-week delivery schedule, may be an effective cognitive training tool in elite military cohorts.

Attenuated Face Processing during Mind Wandering.

Mind wandering (MW) has been recently investigated in many studies. It has been suggested that, during MW, processing of perceptual stimuli is attenuated in favor of internal thoughts, a phenomenon referred to as perceptual decoupling. Perceptual decoupling has been investigated in ERP studies, which have used relatively simple perceptual stimuli, yet it remains unclear if MW can impact the perceptual processing of complex stimuli with real-world relevance. Here, we investigated the impact of MW on behavioral and neural responses to faces. Thirty-six participants completed a novel sustained attention to response task with faces. They were asked to respond to upright faces (nontargets) and withhold responses to inverted faces (targets) and to report intermittently if they were "On task" or "Off task." Behavioral analyses revealed greater intraindividual coefficient of variation for nontarget faces preceding Off task versus On task. ERP analyses focused primarily on the N170 component associated with face processing but also included the P1 and P3 components. The results revealed attenuated amplitudes to nontarget faces preceding Off task versus On task for the N170, but not for the P3 or P1. These findings suggest decoupled visual processing of faces during MW, which has implications for social neuroscience research.

The role of expectations and habitual emotion regulation in emotional processing: An ERP investigation.

Available evidence from separate lines of event-related potential (ERP) research has highlighted the role of expectations and emotion regulation on emotional processing by revealing that (i) expectations can alter emotional responses, and (ii) the instructed use of emotion regulation strategies may modulate emotional responses. Yet, little is known about the interplay between expectations and habitual emotion regulation strategies prior to and at the onset of an emotional event. The present study aimed to investigate this potential relationship. Participants completed an affective-cueing task consisting of cues (red squares and blue circles) signaling the likely valence of upcoming target images (negative or neutral). This task allowed us to examine the impact of expectations at 2 temporal stages, Cue Interval and Target Interval, by measuring the late positive potential (LPP) as an index of emotional processing. Habitual use of emotion regulation strategies was assessed through the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), which measures the use of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in everyday life. In the Cue Interval, LPP amplitude was greater for negative versus neutral cues (p < .001). In the Target Interval, LPP amplitude was greater for negatively cued versus neutrally cued targets, regardless of target valence (p = .003). ERQ reappraisal, but not suppression, negatively correlated with LPP modulation as a function of cue valence during both intervals (ps < .05). These findings provide novel insights regarding the interplay between expectations and habitual emotion regulation in emotional processing both prior to and at the onset of an emotional event. (PsycINFO Database Record

The influence of time on task on mind wandering and visual working memory.

Working memory relies on executive resources for successful task performance, with higher demands necessitating greater resource engagement. In addition to mnemonic demands, prior studies suggest that internal sources of distraction, such as mind wandering (i.e., having off-task thoughts) and greater time on task, may tax executive resources. Herein, the consequences of mnemonic demand, mind wandering, and time on task were investigated during a visual working memory task. Participants (N=143) completed a delayed-recognition visual working memory task, with mnemonic load for visual objects manipulated across trials (1 item=low load; 2 items=high load) and subjective mind wandering assessed intermittently throughout the experiment using a self-report Likert-type scale (1=on-task, 6=off-task). Task performance (correct/incorrect response) and self-reported mind wandering data were evaluated by hierarchical linear modeling to track trial-by-trial fluctuations. Performance declined with greater time on task, and the rate of decline was steeper for high vs low load trials. Self-reported mind wandering increased over time, and significantly varied asa function of both load and time on task. Participants reported greater mind wandering at the beginning of the experiment for low vs. high load trials; however, with greater time on task, more mind wandering was reported during high vs. low load trials. These results suggest that the availability of executive resources in support of working memory maintenance processes fluctuates in a demand-sensitive manner with time on task, and may be commandeered by mind wandering.

Investigating the phenomenological matrix of mindfulness-related practices from a neurocognitive perspective.

There has been a great increase in literature concerned with the effects of a variety of mental training regimes that generally fall within what might be called contemplative practices, and a majority of these studies have focused on mindfulness. Mindfulness meditation practices can be conceptualized as a set of attention-based, regulatory, and self-inquiry training regimes cultivated for various ends, including wellbeing and psychological health. This article examines the construct of mindfulness in psychological research and reviews recent, nonclinical work in this area. Instead of proposing a single definition of mindfulness, we interpret it as a continuum of practices involving states and processes that can be mapped into a multidimensional phenomenological matrix which itself can be expressed in a neurocognitive framework. This phenomenological matrix of mindfulness is presented as a heuristic to guide formulation of next-generation research hypotheses from both cognitive/behavioral and neuroscientific perspectives. In relation to this framework, we review selected findings on mindfulness cultivated through practices in traditional and research settings, and we conclude by identifying significant gaps in the literature and outline new directions for research.