Effects of Muscle Type and Aging on Glycolysis and Physicochemical Quality Properties of Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) Meat.

Poor tenderness of camel meat has seriously hampered the development of the camel meat industry. This study investigated the effects of muscle fiber composition and ageing time on meat quality, glycolytic potential, and glycolysis-related enzyme activities. Muscle samples of the longissimus thoracis (LT), psoas major (PM), and semitendinosus (ST) were collected from eight 8-10 year old Sonid Bactrian camels (females). Muscle fiber composition was examined by ATPase staining and immunohistochemistry. Meat quality indexes, glycolytic potential, and activities of major glycolytic enzymes were examined at 4 °C aging for 1, 6, 24, 72, and 120 h. The results showed that LT was mainly composed of type IIb muscle fibers, whereas PM and ST were mainly composed of type I muscle fibers. The PCR results of the myosin heavy chain (MyHC) were consistent with the ATPase staining results. During aging, the shear force of LT muscle was always greater than that of PM and ST, and its glycolysis was the strongest; type IIa, IIb, and IIx muscle fibers were positively correlated with muscle shear force and glycolysis rate, and type I muscle fibers were significantly and negatively correlated with the activities of the key enzymes of glycolysis within 6 h. The results showed that the muscle fibers of LT muscle had the greatest glycolysis capacity. These results suggest that an excessive type IIb muscle fiber number percentage and area in camel meat accelerated the glycolysis process, but seriously affected the sensory profile of the camel meat. The results of this study provide directions for the camel industry when addressing the poor tenderness of camel meat.

Lipidomic and proteomic profiling identifies the milk fat globule membrane composition of milk from cows and camels.

This study was designed to detect lipidomic and proteomic differences in the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) fractions of cow and camel milk samples. In total, 353 lipid species were detected in these analyses, including 77 PEs, 30 PCs, 28 PIs, 59 SMs, 54 Cers, 13 LPCs, 14 LPEs, 20 PSs, and 4 PGs. These included 54 polar lipid species that differed significantly in abundance between cow and camel milk. Glycerophospholipid metabolism was identified as a core metabolic pathway associated with camel milk composition. Furthermore, 547 proteins exhibiting differential abundance were identified by a label-free proteomics methodology when comparing samples of MFGMfrom camels and cows. Of these proteins, those that differed most in expression between these groups were associated with metabolic pathways, including endoplasmic reticulum activity, endocytosis, and PI3K-Akt signaling. In conclusion, our findings provide a more thorough understanding of the composition of MFGM and its physiological significance, hence offering robust evidence for the potential utilization of camel milk as a nutritional resource in future developments.

Camel milk Polar Lipids ameliorate dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice by modulating the gut microbiota.

Milk contains abundant polar lipids, which are vital constituents of biological membranes. These polar lipids are present in the human diet as phospholipids (PL) and sphingolipids (SL). Nevertheless, the limited focus has been on the attributes and role of camel milk polar lipids (MPLs). In this study, camel MPLs were isolated, and the composition of their lipidome was determined using Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. This study characterized a total of 333 polar lipids, which encompassed glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids. Camel milk is rich in polar lipids, mainly phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), sphingomyelin (SM), and phosphatidylcholine (PC). The results indicated that MPLs intervention relieved the clinical symptoms and colon tissue damage in mice with DSS-induced colitis, while also suppressing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, administration of MPLs partially alleviated mouse gut microbiota dysbiosis by increasing the abundance of probiotics (such as Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, Muribaculaceae) and decreasing the number of harmful bacteria (such as Bacteroides, Parabacteroides). This study was conducted to investigate the potent protective effects of MPLs in camel milk treatments on a mouse model of colitis and provided new ideas for the application of camel milk.

Proteomic Identification and Characterization of Collagen from Bactrian Camel (Camelus bactrianus) Hoof.

With the development of camel-derived food and pharmaceutical cosmetics, camel hoof, as a unique by-product of the camel industry, has gradually attracted the attention of scientific researchers in the fields of nutrition, health care, and biomaterial development. In this study, the protein composition and collagen type of Bactrian camel hoof collagen extract (CHC) were analyzed by LC-MS/MS, and the functional properties of CHC were further investigated, including its rheological characteristics, emulsification and emulsion stability, and hygroscopicity and humectancy. Proteomic identification confirmed that CHC had 13 collagen subunits, dominated by type I collagen (α1, α2), with molecular weights mainly in the 100-200 KDa range and a pI of 7.48. An amino acid study of CHC revealed that it carried the standard amino acid profile of type I collagen and was abundant in Gly, Pro, Glu, Ala, and Arg. Additionally, studies using circular dichroism spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that CHC contains a collagen-like triple helix structure that is stable and intact. Different concentrations of CHC solutions showed shear-thinning flow behavior. Its tan δ did not differ much with increasing concentration. The CHC has good emulsifying ability and stability, humectancy, and hygroscopicity. This study provides a basis for utilizing and developing Bactrian camel hoof collagen as a functional ingredient.

Effect of Ultrasound Pre-Treatment on Extraction and Characterization of Collagen from Bactrian Camel Skin.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of ultrasound pre-treatment on the characterization from Bactrian camel skin. It was possible to produce and characterize collagen extracted from Bactrian camel skin. The results showed that the yield of collagen was higher in ultrasound pre-treatment (UPSC) (41.99%) than the pepsin-soluble collagen extraction (PSC) (26.08%). All extracts were identified as type I collagens using sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and retained their helical structure, as confirmed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The scanning electron microscopy analysis of UPSC revealed that some physical changes were caused by sonication. UPSC had smaller particle size than PSC. The viscosity of UPSC always plays a leading role in the range of 0-10 Hz. However, the contribution of elasticity to the solution system of PSC increased in the range of 1-10 Hz. Moreover, ultrasound-treated collagen had superior solubility property at pH 1-4 and at <3% (w/v) NaCl than non-ultrasound treated collagen. Therefore, the utilization of ultrasound for the extraction of pepsin soluble collagen is a good alternative technology to expand the application at industrial level.

Modulatory effect of camel milk on intestinal microbiota of mice with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common metabolic disease of life, usually caused by unhealthy diet and lifestyle. Compared to normal individuals, the structure of the intestinal flora of NAFLD patients is altered accordingly. This study investigates the effect of camel milk on the regulation of intestinal flora structure in mice with high-fat diet-induced NAFLD. NAFLD model was established by feeding C57BL/6J mice a high-fat diet for 12 weeks, meanwhile camel milk (3.0 g/kg/d), cow milk (3.0 g/kg/d), and silymarin (200 mg/kg/d) were administered by gavage, respectively. Food intake and changes of physiological indexes in mice were observed and recorded. The 16S rRNA gene V3-V4 region was sequenced and the intestinal flora diversity and gene function were predicted in the colon contents of mice from different group. The results showed that camel milk enhanced glucolipid metabolism by downregulate the levels of blood glucose and triglyceride (TG) in serum, reduced lipid accumulation by downregulate the level of TG in the liver and improved liver tissue structure in NAFLD mice (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, camel milk had a positive modulatory effect on the intestinal flora of NAFLD mice, increasing the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria and decreasing the relative abundance of harmful bacteria in the intestinal flora of NAFLD mice, and silymarin had a similar modulatory effect. At the genus level, camel milk increased the relative abundance of Bacteroides, norank_f_Muribaculaceae and Alloprevotella and decreased the relative abundance of Dubosiella and Coriobacteriaceae_UCG-002 (p < 0.05). Camel milk also enhanced Carbohydrate metabolism, Amino acid metabolism, Energy metabolism, Metabolism of cofactors and vitamins and Lipid metabolism in NAFLD mice, thus reducing the degree of hepatic lipid accumulation in NAFLD mice and maintaining the normal structure of the liver. In conclusion, camel milk can improve the structure and diversity of intestinal flora and enhance the levels of substance and energy metabolism in NAFLD mice, which has a positive effect on alleviating NAFLD and improving the structure of intestinal flora.

Detection of Ovine or Bovine Milk Components in Commercial Camel Milk Powder Using a PCR-Based Method.

Food ingredient adulteration, especially the adulteration of milk and dairy products, is one of the important issues of food safety. The large price difference between camel milk powder, ovine, and bovine milk powder may be an incentive for the incorporation of ovine and bovine derived foods in camel milk products. This study evaluated the use of ordinary PCR and real-time PCR for the detection of camel milk powder adulteration based on the presence of ovine and bovine milk components. DNA was extracted from camel, ovine, and bovine milk powder using a deep-processed product column DNA extraction kit. The quality of the extracted DNA was detected by amplifying the target sequence from the mitochondrial Cytb gene, and the extracted DNA was used for the identification of milk powder based on PCR analysis. In addition, PCR-based methods (both ordinary PCR and real-time PCR) were used to detect laboratory adulteration models of milk powder using primers targeting mitochondrial genes. The results show that the ordinary PCR method had better sensitivity and could qualitatively detect ovine and bovine milk components in the range of 1% to 100% in camel milk powder. The commercial camel milk powder was used to verify the practicability of this method. The real-time PCR normalization system has a good exponential correlation (R2 = 0.9822 and 0.9923) between ovine or bovine content and Ct ratio (specific/internal reference gene) and allows for the quantitative determination of ovine or bovine milk contents in adulterated camel milk powder samples. Accuracy was effectively validated using simulated adulterated samples, with recoveries ranging from 80% to 110% with a coefficient of variation of less than 7%, exhibiting sufficient parameters of trueness. The ordinary PCR qualitative detection and real-time PCR quantitative detection method established in this study proved to be a specific, sensitive, and effective technology, which is expected to be used for market detection.

Effects of Age and Muscle Type on the Chemical Composition and Quality Characteristics of Bactrian Camel (Camelus bactrianus) Meat.

Camel meat could have health benefits for human consumers due to its nutritional value. The influence of age and muscle type on the chemical composition and quality characteristics of Bactrian camel meat was examined in the present study. Samples of the Longissimus thoracic (LT), Semitendinosus (ST), and Psoas major (PM) muscles were collected from a total of fifteen male camels in three different age groups (3−4 years, 6−7 years, and 9−10 years). The younger camels exhibited higher values of moisture, polyunsaturated fatty acids, ultimate pH, cooking loss, and lightness, but lower fat, shear force, and redness values compared to meat collected from older camels. The LT muscle had higher fat and color parameters (lightness, redness, yellowness) but lower shear force values than the ST and PM muscles (p < 0.05). The ST muscles had a higher content of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids but lower cooking loss values than the LT and PM muscles. These results indicated that younger camels provide better meat quality traits than older camels. The results of the present study will improve the marketing of Bactrian camel meat products and will provide more information about the most suitable muscles and the optimal slaughter age.

Effects of Various Processing Methods on the Nutritional Quality and Carcinogenic Substances of Bactrian Camel (Camelus bactrianus) Meat.

Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) meat, as a product of national geographical indication, is mainly produced in the northwest regions of China. This study systematically evaluated the edible quality, nutritional quality, and carcinogenic substances of Bactrian camel meat using different heating times in four thermal processing methods (steaming, boiling, frying, and microwaving). Compared with the control group (uncooked), the thermal processing of meat demonstrated lower redness and moisture content; higher shear force values and protein, fat, and ash contents; and sharply increased the levels of amino acids and fatty acids. The moisture content of the fried and microwave-treated meat was significantly lower than that of the steamed and boiled meat (p < 0.05). Steamed meat was higher in protein but had a lower fat content than the other three processing methods (p < 0.05). Compared with frying and microwaving, meat from steaming and boiling showed higher levels of essential amino acids and lower shear force values. However, the smoke generated during frying led to the formation of large amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitrites, and the levels of these substances increased with heating time. In addition, with the extension of the heating time, the shear force of the meat also increased gradually (p < 0.05). In summary, steaming and boiling were proven to be suitable processing methods for preserving better nutritional values while delivering less carcinogenic risk. With our results, we have established a nutritional database for Bactrian camel meat, providing a reference for selecting a suitable thermal processing method.

Camel milk ameliorates inflammatory mechanisms in an alcohol-induced liver injury mouse model.

Camel milk (CM) is considered to protect the liver in the practice of traditional medicine in nomadic areas. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of CM on the hepatic biochemical and multiple omics alterations induced by chronic alcoholic liver disease (ALD). An intragastric gavage mice Lieber DeCarli + Gao binge model (NIAAA model) was employed to investigate the inflammatory mechanism of camel milk on the liver tissue of mice. A gut microbiota of the feces of mice and transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of the liver of mice were performed. Analysis of serum and liver biochemical indexes revealed that camel milk not only prevents alcohol-induced colonic dysfunction and lipid accumulation, but also regulates oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokine production to protect against chronic ALD in mouse. The gut microbial community of mice treated with camel milk was more similar to the untreated control group than to the model group, indicating that the intake of camel milk pre- and post-alcohol gavage effectively prevents and alleviates the intestinal microbial disorder caused by chronic alcoholism in mice. Furthermore, the results of the transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of the liver tissue showed that camel milk can improve alcoholic liver injury in mice by regulating inflammatory factors and immune system disruptions. This study provides insights into the molecular mechanism by which camel milk can be developed as a potential functional food with no side effects and against liver injury.

Reversible insulin resistance helps Bactrian camels survive fasting.

Camels have hunger tolerance and can adapt to the severe environment of the desert. Through the comparison of insulin signalling pathway genes in different tissues in different eating periods (feeding, fasting and recovery feeding), it was found that IRS1, PIK3CB, PIK3R1 and SLC2A4 expression was significantly downregulated in the fore hump and hind hump during the fasting period. In addition, there was no difference in serum insulin levels among the three stages. However, the serum leptin and adiponectin levels decreased significantly during fasting. Additionally, insulin tolerance tests during the three stages showed that camels were insensitive to insulin during fasting. Further study of the serum metabolites showed that serum branched-chain and aromatic amino acid levels increased during the fasting period. Finally, analysis of microbial diversity in camel faeces at different stages showed that during the fasting period, the proportion of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria increased, while that of Bacteroides and the butyrate-producing bacterium Roseburia decreased. The results of this study show that fasting is accompanied by changes in the activation of insulin pathways in various camel tissues, normal insulin levels, and increased lipolysis and insulin resistance, which return to normal after eating.

Mitochondrial DNA variation and phylogeography of Old World camels.

OBJECTIVE: Old World camels are a valuable genetic resource for many countries around the world due to their adaptation to the desert environment. At present, Old World camels have encountered the challenge of unprecedented loss of genetic resources. Through our research, we would reveal the population structure and genetic variation in Old World camel populations, which provides a theoretical basis for understanding the germplasm resources and origin and evolution of different Old World camel populations. METHODS: In the present study, we assessed mtDNA control region sequences of 182 individuals from Old World camels to unravel genetic diversity, phylogeography, and demographic dynamics. RESULTS: Thirty-two haplotypes confirmed by 54 polymorphic sites were identified in the 156 sequences, which included 129 domestic and 27 wild Bactrian camels. Meanwhile, 14 haplotypes were defined by 47 polymorphic sites from 26 sequences in the dromedaries. The wild Bactrian camel population showed the lowest haplotype and nucleotide diversity, while the dromedaries investigated had the highest. The phylogenetic analysis suggests that there are several shared haplotypes in different Bactrian camel populations, and that there has been genetic introgression between domestic Bactrian camels and dromedaries. In addition, positive values of Tajima's D and Fu's Fs test demonstrated a decrease in population size and/or balancing selection in the wild Bactrian camel population. In contrast, the negative values of Tajima's D and Fu's Fs test in East Asian Bactrian camel populations explained the demographic expansion and/or positive selection. CONCLUSION: In summary, we report novel information regarding the genetic diversity, population structure and demographic dynamics of Old World camels. The findings obtained from the present study reveal that abundant genetic diversity occurs in domestic Bactrian camel populations and dromedaries, while there are low levels of haplotype and nucleotide diversity in the wild Bactrian camel population.

Camel milk modulates ethanol-induced changes in the gut microbiome and transcriptome in a mouse model of acute alcoholic liver disease.

Morbidity and mortality as a result of liver disease are major problems around the world, especially from alcoholic liver disease (ALD), which is characterized by hepatic inflammation and intestinal microbial imbalance. In this study, we investigated the hepatoprotective effects of camel milk (CM) in a mouse model of acute ALD and the underlying mechanism at the gut microbiota and transcriptome level. Male Institute of Cancer Research mice (n = 24; Beijing Weitong Lihua Experimental Animal Technology Co. Ltd., China) were divided into 3 groups: normal diet (NC); normal diet, then ethanol (ET); and normal diet and camel milk (CM), then ethanol (ET+CM). Analysis of serum biochemical indexes and histology revealed a reduction in hepatic inflammation in the ET+CM group. Sequencing of 16S rRNA showed that CM modulated the microbial communities, with an increased proportion of Lactobacillus and reduced Bacteroides, Alistipes, and Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group. Comparative hepatic transcriptome analysis revealed 315 differentially expressed genes (DEG) in the ET+CM and ET groups (150 upregulated and 165 downregulated). Enrichment analysis revealed that CM downregulated the expression of inflammation-related (ILB and CXCL1) genes in the IL-17 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) pathways. We conclude that CM modulates liver inflammation and alleviates the intestinal microbial disorder caused by acute alcohol injury, indicating the potential of dietary CM in protection against alcohol-induced liver injury.

Antibacterial Activity of Trypsin-Hydrolyzed Camel and Cow Whey and Their Fractions.

Antibacterial peptides were isolated and purified from whey proteins of camel milk (CaW) and cow milk (CoW) and their antimicrobial activities were studied. The whey proteins were hydrolyzed using trypsin, and the degree of hydrolysis was identified by gel electrophoresis. The whey hydrolysate (WH) was purified using ultrafiltration and Dextran gel chromatography to obtain small peptides with antibacterial activity. The effect of the antimicrobial peptides on the morphology of bacterial strains was investigated using transmission electron microscopy. Their amino acid composition and antimicrobial activities were then determined. Polypeptides CaWH-III (<3 kDa) and CoWH-III (<3 kDa) had the strongest antibacterial activity. Both Fr.A2 (CaWH-Ⅲ's fraction 2) and Fr.B1 (CoWH-Ⅲ's fraction 1) had antibacterial effects toward Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, with minimum antimicrobial mass concentrations of 65 mg/mL and 130 mg/mL for Fr.A2, and 130 mg/mL and 130 mg/mL for Fr.B1, respectively. The highly active antimicrobial peptides had high amounts of alkaline amino acids (28.13% in camel milk Fr.A2 and 25.07% in the cow milk Fr.B1) and hydrophobic amino acids. (51.29% in camel milk Fr.A2 and 57.69% in the cow milk Fr.B1). This results showed that hydrolysis of CaW and CoW using trypsin produced a variety of effective antimicrobial peptides against selected pathogens, and the antibacterial activity of camel milk whey was slightly higher than that of cow milk whey.

A Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies Quantitative Trait Loci Affecting Hematological Traits in Camelus bactrianus.

Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) are one of the few large livestock species that can survive in the Gobi Desert. Animal immunity and disease resistance are related to hematological traits, which are also associated with tolerance observed in Bactrian camels. However, no genome-wide association studies have examined the genetic mechanism of the immune capability of Bactrian camels. In the present study, we used genotyping-by-sequencing data generated from 366 Bactrian camel accessions to perform a genome-wide association study for 17 hematological traits. Of the 256,616 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) obtained, 1,635 trait-SNP associations were among the top quantitative trait locus candidates. Lastly, 664 candidate genes associated with 13 blood traits were identified. The most significant were ZNF772, MTX2, ESRRG, MEI4, IL11, FRMPD4, GABPA, NTF4, CRYBG3, ENPP5, COL16A1, and CD207. The results of our genome-wide association study provide a list of significant SNPs and candidate genes, which offer valuable information for further dissection of the molecular mechanisms that regulate the camel's hematological traits to ultimately reveal their tolerance mechanisms.

Analyses of physicochemical properties, bacterial microbiota, and lactic acid bacteria of fresh camel milk collected in Inner Mongolia.

Camel milk has significant economic value and is an important food in the region of Alxa Left Banner of Inner Mongolia. Fifteen fresh camel milk samples were collected from domesticated camels in a pasture of Alxa Left Banner. The physicochemical properties and bacterial diversity of camel milk samples were analyzed. The average values of fat, total protein, nonfat milk solids, acidity, and density were 4.40%, 3.87%, 9.50%, 16.95°T, and 1.02 g/cm3, respectively. The bacterial microbiota of the collected fresh camel milk was investigated using PacBio single-molecule real-time (Pacific Biosciences, Menlo Park, CA) sequencing. The camel milk microbiota was highly diverse and comprised 8,513 operational taxonomic units belonging to 32 phyla, 377 genera, and 652 species. The major phyla included Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Deinococcus-Thermus, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria. A small number of lactic acid bacteria sequences were detected, representing the species Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactococcus lactis, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides. A total of 72 strains of lactic acid bacteria were isolated and identified from 15 samples, including Lactobacillus paracasei, Enterococcus italicus, Enterococcus durans, Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis, Weissella confusa, and Enterococcus faecium. These results confirm that fresh camel milk has a high bacterial diversity and is a valuable natural resource for isolation of novel lactic acid bacteria.

Effects of Geographic Region on the Composition of Bactrian Camel Milk in Mongolia.

Camel milk is considered as an essential source of nutrition for desert people. However, few studies have investigated how geography affects Bactrian camel milk in Mongolia. In this study, we evaluated the differences in gross composition, fatty acid composition, and amino acid composition among Bactrian camel milk samples collected from 102 Bactrian camels in five different Mongolian regions. The proportion of long-chain fatty acids, out of total fatty acids, was high in all samples of Bactrian camel milk. The primary fatty acids detected in the samples were palmitic acid (23.99-30.72%), oleic acid (17.21-24.24%), and stearic acid (11.13-16.49%), while the dominant amino acids were leucine, lysine, valine, and aspartic acid. Cysteine was the least common amino acid detected in the Bactrian camel milk samples. Considerable differences in the fatty acid and amino acid compositions were observed among Bactrian camel milk from different regions of Mongolia. The findings suggest that geography strongly affects the composition of camel milk.

High-Throughput Sequencing Reveals the Gut Microbiome of the Bactrian Camel in Different Ages.

The complex gut microbiota plays a key role in host metabolism and health. However, the core microbial communities in the different aged Bactrian camels remain totally unclear. We used high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing to examine the temporal variability of the fecal microbiota in Bactrian camels. At 2 months of age, the fecal microbiota was composed of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria. At 1 and 3 years of age, the fecal microbiota was dominated by Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Verrucomicrobia. At the genus level, Blautia, Fusobacterium, and Bifidobacterium were more abundant at 2 months of age, as well as Escherichia-Shigella. Ruminococcaceae_UCG-005, Akkermansia, and Christensenellaceae_R-7_group were the most abundant at 1 and 3 years of age. Diversity and stability of the gut microbiota increased with age. There was enrichment for genes associated with immune system diseases at 2 months of age. This study is the first to investigate the distribution of the gut microbiota in Bactrian camels with different ages and provide a baseline for future camel microbiology research.

Characterizing the bacterial microbiota in different gastrointestinal tract segments of the Bactrian camel.

The bacterial community plays important roles in the gastrointestinal tracts (GITs) of animals. However, our understanding of the microbial communities in the GIT of Bactrian camels remains limited. Here, we describe the bacterial communities from eight different GIT segments (rumen, reticulum, abomasum, duodenum, ileum, jejunum, caecum, colon) and faeces determined from 11 Bactrian camels using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Twenty-seven bacterial phyla were found in the GIT, with Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobia and Bacteroidetes predominating. However, there were significant differences in microbial community composition between segments of the GIT. In particular, a greater proportion of Akkermansia and Unclassified Ruminococcaceae were found in the large intestine and faecal samples, while more Unclassified Clostridiales and Unclassified Bacteroidales were present in the in forestomach and small intestine. Comparative analysis of the microbiota from different GIT segments revealed that the microbial profile in the large intestine was like that in faeces. We also predicted the metagenomic profiles for the different GIT regions. In forestomach, there was enrichment associated with replication and repair and amino acid metabolism, while carbohydrate metabolism was enriched in the large intestine and faeces. These results provide profound insights into the GIT microbiota of Bactrian camels.