Targeted Degradation of Signal Transduction and Activator of Transcription 3 by Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy Targeting Chimeric Nanoplatform.

Chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) is a lysosomal-dependent proteolysis pathway for the degradation of cytosolic proteins. However, exploiting CMA-mediated proteolysis to degrade proteins of interest in cancer therapy has not been widely applied. In this study, we develop a CMA-targeting chimera (CMATAC) to efficiently and specifically degrade signal transduction and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in tumor cells. CMATAC consists of STAT3 and heat shock cognate 70 kDa protein (HSC70) targeting peptides connected by a linker. To efficiently deliver CMATACs into tumor cells, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are used to encapsulate CMATACs (nCMATACs) and decorated with an insulin-like growth factor 2 receptor (IGF2R) targeting peptide (InCMATACs) to achieve tumor targeting and precise delivery. The CMA pathway is activated in tumor cells by a fasting-mimicking diet (FMD). Furthermore, FMD treatment strongly enhances the cellular uptake and tumor accumulation of InCMATACs by upregulating the IGF2R expression. As a result, InCMATACs efficiently degrade STAT3 protein in both A549 and HCC827 tumor cells and inhibit tumor growths in vivo. This study demonstrates that InCMATACs can be used for selective proteolysis in cancer therapy.

Persistent Degradation of HER2 Protein by Hybrid nanoPROTAC for Programmed Cell Death.

Proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) has emerged as a promising strategy for degrading proteins of interest. Peptide-based PROTACs offer several advantages over small-molecule-based PROTACs, such as high specificity, low toxicity, and large protein-protein interaction surfaces. However, peptide-based PROTACs have several intrinsic shortcomings that strongly limit their application including poor cell permeability and low stability and potency. Herein, we designed a nanosized hybrid PROTAC (GNCTACs) to target and degrade human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) in tumor cells. Gold nanoclusters (GNCs) were utilized to connect HER2-targeting peptides and cereblon (CRBN)-targeting ligands. GNCTACs could overcome the intrinsic barriers of peptide-based PROTACs, efficiently delivering HER2-targeting peptides in the cytoplasm and protecting them from degradation. Furthermore, a fasting-mimicking diet was applied to enhance the cellular uptake and proteasome activity. Consequently, more than 95% of HER2 in SKBR3 cells was degraded by GNCTACs, and the degradation lasted for at least 72 h, showing a catalytic-like reaction.

Recent Advances in Drug Delivery System Fabricated by Microfluidics for Disease Therapy.

Traditional drug therapy faces challenges such as drug distribution throughout the body, rapid degradation and excretion, and extensive adverse reactions. In contrast, micro/nanoparticles can controllably deliver drugs to target sites to improve drug efficacy. Unlike traditional large-scale synthetic systems, microfluidics allows manipulation of fluids at the microscale and shows great potential in drug delivery and precision medicine. Well-designed microfluidic devices have been used to fabricate multifunctional drug carriers using stimuli-responsive materials. In this review, we first introduce the selection of materials and processing techniques for microfluidic devices. Then, various well-designed microfluidic chips are shown for the fabrication of multifunctional micro/nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. Finally, we describe the interaction of drugs with lymphatic vessels that are neglected in organs-on-chips. Overall, the accelerated development of microfluidics holds great potential for the clinical translation of micro/nanoparticle drug delivery systems for disease treatment.

Enhanced Sensitivity of Tumor Cells to Autophagy Inhibitors Using Fasting-Mimicking Diet and Targeted Lysosomal Delivery Nanoplatform.

Autophagy is one of the key pathways for tumor cell survival and proliferation. Therefore, inhibition of autophagy has been extensively studied for cancer therapy. However, current autophagy inhibitors lack specificity and are ineffective in limiting tumor progression. Herein, we report a nanoplatform for tumor-site-targeted delivery of hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) using insulin-like growth factors 2 receptor (IGF2R)-targeted liposomes (iLipo-H). A fasting-mimicking diet (FMD) is used to increase the autophagy levels in tumor cells, thereby increasing the sensitivity of tumor cells to HCQ. In addition, FMD treatment upregulates the expression of IGF2R in tumor cells, but not normal cells. Consequently, iLipo-H nanoparticles efficiently accumulate at the tumor site under FMD condition. In vivo studies demonstrate that iLipo-H nanoparticles efficiently inhibit 4T1 tumor growth without obvious side effects, especially under FMD condition. This study provides a promising strategy to increase the sensitivity of tumor cells to autophagy inhibitors for effective cancer therapy.

Direct Presentation of Tumor-Associated Antigens to Induce Adaptive Immunity by Personalized Dendritic Cell-Mimicking Nanovaccines.

Dendritic cells (DCs)-based vaccines are an approved method for inducing potent antigen-specific immune responses to eliminate tumor cells. However, this promising strategy still faces challenges such as tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) loading, lymph node homing, quality control, and other limitations. Here, a personalized DC-mimicking nanovaccine (nanoDC) for stimulation of TAAs-specific T cell populations is developed. The nanoDCs are fabricated using nanoparticles with dendritic structure and membranes from mature bone-marrow-derived cells (BMDCs). Mature BMDCs are stimulated by nanostructures assembled from Escherichia coli and tumor cells to efficiently deliver TAAs and induce BMDCs maturation through the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway. By maintaining co-stimulatory markers, molecules class I (MHC-I) antigen complexes and lymphocyte homing receptors, nanoDCs efficiently migrate to lymph nodes and generate potent antigen-specific T cell responses. Consequently, vaccination with nanoDCs strongly inhibits the tumor growth and metastases formation in vivo. In particular, nanoDCs can also induce memory T cells for long-term protective immunity. This study demonstrates that nanoDCs can trigger adaptive immune protection against tumors for personalized immunotherapy and precision medicine.

Regulation of Nucleotide Metabolism with Nutrient-Sensing Nanodrugs for Cancer Therapy.

The continual growth of tumor cells requires considerable nutrient consumption. Methotrexate (MTX) is used to treat certain types of cancer by blocking the DNA and RNA productions through interfering one-carbon metabolism and de novo purine and pyrimidine synthesis. However, treatment of MTX may cause many serious adverse effects, which hamper its clinical application. Herein, the authors synthesize ferrous ions, histidine, and MTX assembled nanoparticles (FHM) to deliver MTX at tumor site and enhance the sensitivity of tumor cells to MTX with histidine catabolism. Furthermore, fasting-mimicking diet (FMD) is applied to intervene in the one-carbon metabolism and enhance the cytotoxicity of MTX. Meanwhile, FMD treatment can significantly augment the cellular uptake and tumor accumulation of FHM nanoparticles. Due to the triple inhibitions of the one-carbon metabolism, the proliferation of tumor cells is strongly disturbed, as which is highly replying on DNA and RNA production. Taken together, a 95% lower dose of MTX adopted in combined therapy significantly inhibits the growth of two types of murine tumors without evident systemic toxicity. This strategy may provide a promising nucleotide metabolism-based nanomedicine for cancer therapy.

Suppression of Energy Metabolism in Cancer Cells with Nutrient-Sensing Nanodrugs.

Uncontrolled growth of tumor cells is highly dependent on the energy metabolism. Fasting-mimicking diet (FMD) is a low-calorie, low-protein, low-sugar diet representing a promising strategy for cancer treatment. However, triglyceride stored in adipose tissue is hydrolyzed into free fatty acids and glycerol for energy supply during FMD treatment. Herein, we design a nutrient-sensing nanodrug, VFETX, which is self-assembled with vitamin B1 (VB1), ferrous ions, and etomoxir (ETX). FMD treatment upregulate the expression of VB1 transporters on tumor cells, thereby increasing cellular uptake and tumor accumulation of VFETX. Importantly, treatments of VFETX and FMD synergistically inhibit the energy metabolism in tumor cells and subsequently markedly enhance cytotoxicity of ETX. As a result, VFETX nanodrugs efficiently inhibit the growth of two tumor models in vivo without obvious side effects. This study demonstrates the potential of FMD-assisted nutrient-sensing nanodrugs for cancer therapy.