Functional significance of early-life iron deficiency: outcomes at 25 years.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate adulthood function following chronic iron deficiency in infancy. STUDY DESIGN: At 25 years, we compared 33 subjects with chronic iron deficiency in infancy to 89 who were iron-sufficient before and/or after iron therapy. Outcomes included education, employment, marital status, and physical and mental health. RESULTS: Adjusting for sex and socioeconomic status, a higher proportion of the group with chronic iron deficiency did not complete secondary school (58.1% vs 19.8% in iron-sufficient group; Wald value = 8.74; P = .003), were not pursuing further education/training (76.1% vs 31.5%; Wald value = 3.01; P = .08; suggestive trend), and were single (83.9% vs 23.7%, Wald value = 4.49; P = .03). They reported poorer emotional health and more negative emotions and feelings of dissociation/detachment. Results were similar in secondary analyses comparing the chronic iron-deficient group with subjects in the iron-sufficient group who had been iron-deficient before treatment in infancy. Path analysis showed direct paths for chronic iron deficiency in infancy and being single and more detachment/dissociation at 25 years. There were indirect paths for chronic iron deficiency and not completing secondary school via poorer cognitive functioning in early adolescence and more negative emotions via behavior problems in adolescence, indicating a cascade of adverse outcomes. CONCLUSION: The observational nature of this study limits our ability to draw causal inference, even when controlling for background factors. Nonetheless, our results indicate substantial loss of human potential. There may be broader societal implications, considering that many adults worldwide had chronic iron deficiency in infancy. Iron deficiency can be prevented or treated before it becomes chronic or severe.

Vigilancia epidemiológica prospectiva de la enfermedad neumocócica invasora y de la neumonía en niños de San José, Costa Rica / Prospective epidemiologic surveillance of invasive pneumoccal disease and pneumonia in children in San Jos‚, Costa Rica

Justificación y objetivo: Streptococcus pneumoniae es globalmente la primera causa de muertes inmunoprevenibles en niños menores de 5 años. Métodos: entre 2007 y 2009 se realizó una vigilancia prospectiva con base poblacional en niños de 28 días a 36 meses en San José, Costa Rica. Se determinaron la incidencia de la enfermedad neumocócica invasora y de neumonía confirmada clínicamente y por radiografía, la distribución de serotipos y la sensibilidad a los antibióticos. Resultados: participaron 8801 sujetos (mediana de edad: 13,0 meses). En 25 niños se detectó enfermedad neumocócica invasora mediante aislamiento en cultivos (22) o mediante reacción de polimerasa en cadena y un cuadro clínico compatible con enfermedad neumocócica invasora. En los casos diagnosticados únicamente por cultivo, la tasa de incidencia de enfermedad neumocócica invasora en niños de 28 días a 36 meses de edad fue de 33,7/100000 por año para los años 1 y 2 combinados. Al considerar los casos adicionales diagnosticados por reacción de polimerasa en cadena, la incidencia aumnetó a 46,/100 000. El serotipo más frecuente fue el 14 (28,6 por ciento), seguido por los serotipos 3, 4, 6A, 19A, 22F. 42,9 por ciento de los aislamientos eran insensibles a la penicilina y al cotrimoxazol. La incidencia de neumonía confirmada clínicamente y de neumonía confirmada por radiografía fue de 1968/100 000 y 551/100 000, respectivamente. Conclusión: la incidencia de enfermedad neumocócica invasora y neumonía en niños de San José es considerable. Estos datos epidemiológicos sirven como línea de base para evaluar la efectividad de nuevas vacunas antineumocócicas conjugadas.

Bacteriology of community-acquired invasive disease found in a multicountry prospective, population-based, epidemiological surveillance for Pneumococcus in children in Latin America.

Several bacteria cause community-acquired invasive bacterial disease in children; many are vaccine preventable. Knowledge of pathogens causing community-acquired invasive bacterial disease is important when selecting antimicrobial therapy and implementing vaccine prevention strategies. We describe bacteriology of community-acquired invasive disease observed among 31,641 blood and sterile fluid cultures from children aged 28 days to 36 months in 3 Latin American countries over 2 years.

Prospective epidemiologic surveillance of invasive pneumococcal disease and pneumonia in children in San José, Costa Rica.

BACKGROUND: Streptococcus pneumoniae (SP) is the leading cause of vaccine-preventable death in children <5 years of age, globally. This surveillance determined incidence rates of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), clinical and chest radiograph-confirmed pneumonia (CXR+Pn); and SP serotype distribution and antimicrobial susceptibility in children in San José, Costa Rica. METHODS: This was a 2-year prospective, population-based surveillance conducted in 2007-2009 in children aged 28 days to 36 months presenting to participating healthcare centers. Eligibility criteria for study inclusion were as follows: temperature ≥ 39.0°C within 24h and/or clinical suspicion of IPD or pneumonia. RESULTS: 8801 subjects were enrolled. Median age: 14.5 months. A total of 25 children had invasive pneumococcal disease with S. pneumoniae isolated from nonduplicative cultures (22) or detected solely by PCR and a clinical picture consistent with IPD (3). Sources of positive cultures (some children had >1 positive culture) were: blood (20), pleural fluid (4), and cerebrospinal fluid (3). Of the 3 cases detected solely by PCR, 2 were from cerebrospinal fluid and 1 from pleural fluid. The overall IPD incidence rates for culture-positive only cases for children aged 28 days to <3 years was 33.7/100,000 per year for years 1 and 2 combined. Age stratification of culture-positive only subjects showed a peak during year 1 (106.8/100,000) in children 28 days to <6 months of age group, and in year 2 (45.5/100,000) in children 12 months to <24 months of age group. Most common serotypes were 14 (28.6%), followed by 3, 4, 6A, 19A, and 22F (9.5% each). Of 22 nonduplicative IPD isolates, 42.9% were penicillin- and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole nonsusceptible isolates. Consideration of PCR-positive cases increases the incidence of IPD for children aged 28 days to <3 years to 46.0/100,000. Overall incidence of clinical pneumonia and CXR+Pn was 1968/100,000 and 551/100,000, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: There is a considerable burden of IPD and pneumonia in children in San José. These epidemiologic data serve as a baseline to evaluate the effectiveness of the incorporation of new conjugate pneumococcal vaccines into the National Immunization Program in Costa Rican children.

Iron deficiency in infancy and neurocognitive functioning at 19 years: evidence of long-term deficits in executive function and recognition memory.

Iron deficiency in infancy negatively impacts a variety of neurodevelopmental processes at the time of nutrient insufficiency, with persistent central nervous system alterations and deficits in behavioral functioning, despite iron therapy. In rodent models, early iron deficiency impairs the hippocampus and the dopamine system. We examined the possibility that young adults who had experienced chronic, severe, iron deficiency as infants would exhibit deficits on neurocognitive tests with documented frontostriatal (Trail Making Test, Intra-/Extra-dimensional Shift, Stockings of Cambridge, Spatial Working Memory, Rapid Visual Information Processing) and hippocampal specificity (Pattern Recognition Memory, Spatial Recognition Memory). Participants with chronic, severe iron deficiency in infancy performed less well on frontostriatal-mediated executive functions, including inhibitory control, set-shifting, and planning. Participants also exhibited impairment on a hippocampus-based recognition memory task. We suggest that these deficits may result from the long-term effects of early iron deficiency on the dopamine system, the hippocampus, and their interaction.

Longitudinal evaluation of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems following iron deficiency in infancy.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined externalizing and internalizing behavior problem trajectories as a function of both iron status in infancy and infant characteristics. METHODS: A sample of 185 healthy Costa Rican children who either had chronic, severe iron deficiency or good iron status in infancy were followed for 19 years. RESULTS: Mother ratings of externalizing and internalizing problems from age 5 to 11-14 years were higher for the chronic iron deficiency group compared with those with the good iron status. Iron deficiency in infancy predicted persisting externalizing problems over this time period, especially for those with low physical activity in infancy. Beyond adolescence, youth in the chronic iron deficiency group did not report more problems than those in the good iron group. CONCLUSIONS: These findings underscore the importance of considering infant iron status along with early behavioral characteristics to better identify those children at greatest risk for persisting long-term behavior problems.

Higher infant blood lead levels with longer duration of breastfeeding.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether longer breastfeeding is associated with higher infant lead concentrations. STUDY DESIGN: Data were analyzed from 3 studies of developmental effects of iron deficiency in infancy: Costa Rica (1981-1984), Chile (1991-1996), and Detroit (2002-2003). The relation between duration of breastfeeding and lead levels was assessed with Pearson product-moment or partial correlation coefficients. RESULTS: More than 93% of the Costa Rica and Chile samples was breastfed (179 and 323 breastfed infants, respectively; mean weaning age, 8-10 months), as was 35.6% of the Detroit sample (53 breastfed infants; mean weaning age, 4.5 months). Lead concentrations averaged 10.8 microg/dL (Costa Rica, 12-23 months), 7.8 microg/dL (Chile, 12 months), and 2.5 microg/dL (Detroit, 9-10 months). Duration of breastfeeding as sole milk source and total breastfeeding correlated with lead concentration in all samples (r values = 0.14-0.57; P values = .06-<.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Longer breastfeeding was associated with higher infant lead concentration in 3 countries, in 3 different decades, in settings differing in breastfeeding patterns, environmental lead sources, and infant lead levels. The results suggest that monitoring lead concentrations in breastfed infants be considered.

Double burden of iron deficiency in infancy and low socioeconomic status: a longitudinal analysis of cognitive test scores to age 19 years.

OBJECTIVE: To assess change in cognitive functioning after iron deficiency in infancy, depending on socioeconomic status (SES; middle vs low). DESIGN: Longitudinal study. SETTING: Urban community in Costa Rica (infancy phase [July 26, 1983, through February 28, 1985] through 19-year follow-up [March 19, 2000, through November 4, 2002]). PARTICIPANTS: A total of 185 individuals enrolled at 12 to 23 months of age (no preterm or low-birth-weight infants or infants with acute or chronic health problems). The participants were assessed in infancy and at 5, 11 to 14, 15 to 18, and 19 years of age. A total of 97% were evaluated at 5 or 11 to 14 years and 78% at 15 to 18 or 19 years. Individuals who had chronic iron deficiency in infancy (iron deficiency with hemoglobin concentrations < or =10.0 g/dL or, with higher hemoglobin concentrations, not fully corrected within 3 months of iron therapy) were compared with those who had good iron status as infants (hemoglobin concentrations > or =12.0 g/dL and normal iron measures before and/or after therapy). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cognitive change over time (composite of standardized scores at each age). RESULTS: For middle-SES participants, scores averaged 101.2 in the group with chronic iron deficiency vs 109.3 in the group with good iron status in infancy and remained 8 to 9 points lower through 19 years (95% confidence interval [CI], -10.1 to -6.2). For low-SES participants, the gap widened from 10 points (93.1 vs 102.8; 95% CI for difference, -12.8 to -6.6) to 25 points (70.4 vs 95.3; 95% CI for difference, 20.6 to 29.4). CONCLUSIONS: The group with chronic iron deficiency in infancy did not catch up to the group with good iron status in cognitive scores over time. There was a widening gap for those in low-SES families. The results suggest the value of preventing iron deficiency in infancy.

Effects of iron deficiency in infancy on patterns of motor development over time.

This longitudinal study of the effects of iron deficiency in infancy assessed motor development over time in 185 healthy Costa Rican children who varied in iron status at 12-23 months. Longitudinal analyses (hierarchical linear modeling) used the Bayley Psychomotor Index before and both 1 week and 3 months after iron treatment in infancy and the Bruninks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency - long form at 5 years and short form at 11-14 years. Children with chronic severe iron deficiency in infancy had lower motor scores at the beginning of the study and a lower but parallel trajectory for motor scores through early adolescence. Thus, there was no evidence of catch-up in motor development, despite iron therapy in infancy that corrected iron deficiency anemia in all cases.

Iron deficiency in infancy predicts altered serum prolactin response 10 years later.

Serum prolactin may reflect CNS dopaminergic function. Because iron deficiency (ID) alters brain dopamine in rats, serum prolactin levels were previously investigated in infants with varied iron status. High serum prolactin levels correlated with behaviors typical of chronic ID. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of infant iron status on serum prolactin levels after a stressor in early adolescence. One hundred fifty-nine of 191 children enrolled in infancy (chronic ID, n = 46; good iron comparison group, n = 113) had serum prolactin measurements after catheter placement at 11-14 y of age. Serum prolactin levels were compared by sex, pubertal status and infant iron status and the pattern of change over time was compared by infant iron status controlling for pubertal stage and background factors. Males and less mature adolescents had lower serum prolactin concentrations than females and more mature adolescents. Controlling for these factors, the serum prolactin response pattern differed significantly by infant iron status. Serum prolactin declined earlier for the chronic ID group. In conclusion, an altered serum prolactin response pattern was observed 10 y after chronic ID in infancy and may suggest a long-lasting effect of ID on the regulation of prolactin.

Effects of iron therapy on infant blood lead levels.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effects of iron therapy on blood lead levels in infants with mildly elevated lead levels and varied iron status. METHODS: Infants from a community-derived sample in Costa Rica were categorized into five groups. Group 1 had iron-deficiency anemia with hemoglobin levels

Citogenética y citoquímica de pacientes con leucemias en dos hospitales neotropicales / Citogenetics and citochemistry of leukemia patients in two neotropical hospitals

A cytogenetic and/or cytochemical study was performed in 166 individuals with leukemia or related disorders, in two major Costa Rican hospitals. In those patients treated at an adult`s (14 years old and over), acute leukemias represented 66 porcent of all cases. In that hospital the most frequent types of disorders were, in decreasing order: ANLL(>M1), ALL, CML (all of them showed the Ph chromosome) and MDS. In the cases fron a children`s hospital (<14 years old) acute leukemias were 98 porcent. Among them the order of frequency was: ALL (70 porcent): ALL-1(84 porcent), ALL-2(16 porcent) and ANLL (27 porcent): M5a>M3>M4>M5b. In ALL 85 porcent were type B and occurred mostly in women while 15 porcent of them were type T and more frequent in males. There was 5.6 porcent infant leukemia, which presented a similar number of acute lymphoids and myeloids. The cytogenetic pattern was similar among Costa Rica and other tropical and temperate countries. Key words: Leukemia cytogenetics, acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute nonlymphocitic leukemia, chronic granulocytic leukemia

Escabiasis costrosa (Noruega) y SIDA: reporte de un caso y revisión de la literatura / Crusted scabies and AIDS: repor of a case and review

Se describe un paciente portador del síndrome de inmunodeficiencia adquirida que desarrolló escabiasis costrosa psoriasiforme con mínimo prurito. El frotis en fresco mostró múltiples parásitos. El tratamiento con lindano y queratolíticos fue ineficaz; con fenilbutazona. El diagnóstico temprano evita la diseminación de la enfermedad y sus complicaciones

Anemia ferropénica en lactantes: un estudio prospectivo / Iron deficiency anemia in infants: a prospective study

Se estudiaron diferentes características de la anemia ferropénica en lactantes de 12 a 23 meses de edad en un estudio prospectivo realizado en una comunidad urbana de San José de Costa Rica. La incidencia de anemia en toda población estudiada fue de 63.5%. Excluyendo los niños factores de riesgo para deficiencia de hierro, sólo el 40% tenían Hb normal, y sólo el 13% Hb y Fe normales. El antecendente de Fe no modificó el nivel de Hb de la población, lo que sugiere un control inadecuado de su ingesta. La ingesta de leche materna mejoró el status de Fe de los lactantes. Después de tres meses de tratamiento, la Hb se incrementó significativamente en todos los grupos, aún en los niños con Hb "normal", para una Hb promedio final de 13.2g/dl(8.1mmol/l), lo que demuestra la deficiencia real de Fe de los lactantes estudiados. La respuesta fue más efectiva con Fe oral que con Fe intramuscular

Resultados del tratamiento del linfoma no Hodgkin del niño: protocolo L278 modificado / Results of the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in child: modified L278 protocol

Entre enero de 1983 y julio de l984, un grupo de 14 niños con linfoma no Hodgkin (LNH), 12 del sexo masculino y 2 del femenino (6:1) y edades entre los 2 y 10 años, fueron tratados con el protocolo L278 modificado (Hospital Nacional de Niños de Costa Rica). La modificación se realizó agregando una fase de consolidación después de la inducción, con methotrexate (MTX) (1 g/m2, iv) y rescate leucovorínico (20 mg/m2 im/po c/6 horas por 3 dosis) en los casos de LNH de células B o abdominales y citosín arabinósida (Ara C) (1200 mg/m2 iv) y L asparaginosa (10000 U/m2 im c/48 horas por 4 dosis), en los casos de LNH de células T o mediastinales. En la fase de prevención de recaída al SNC, se agregó Ara C intrarraquídea (60 mg, 50 mg y 30 mg a los niños de más de 3, 2 y 1 año respectivamente) cada 2 semanas por 3 dosis. Los demás medicamentos se aplicaron en la misma forma que en el protocolo L278, pero se acortó la fase de mantenimiento en los E III y IV de 18 a 15 meses. Doce casos eran abdominales: 10 en E III, uno en E II y uno en E IV (médula ósea infiltrada). Uno se localizó en mediastino (E III) y uno en ganglios cervicales (E I). En 10 casos la histología fue indiferenciado no Burkitt, en uno Burkitt y en tres no fue clasificable. Diez pacientes se laparotomizaron, en otros tres el diagnóstico se hizo por biopsia y en uno por citología. Los 14 presentaron remisión inicial completa; un niño, en E IV, recayó en SNC y médula ósea y falleció a los cinco meses del diagnóstico; otro, en E III abdominal, falleció a los nueve meses de remisión comprobada por autopsia, debido a miocardiopatía por adriamicina. Doce niños, fuera de tratamiento, se encuentran en remisión completa con una sobrevida de 15 a 30 meses

Tratamiento de la leucemia linfocítica aguda (LLA) en niños / Treatment for acute lymphocytic leukemia in children

Se reportan los resultados del tratamiento antileucémico en 195 niños com LLA. Noventa e tres porciento de los pacientes hicieron remisión completa, con 5% de mortalidad durante la inducción. El 81% de los niños permanecen en remisión completa continuada, siendo la duración de la remisión significativamente menor en los pacientes de mal pronóstico. El sitio más frecuente de recaída fue la médula ósea (11%). Se revisaron las complicaciones durante la inducción, y se concluye que con buena terapia de apoyo es factible realizar el protocolo BFM en países de américa latina, con resultados similares a los reportados por otros investigadores

Anemia aplastica adquirida en ninos.Analisis de 29 casos. / Acquired aplastic anemia in children: analysis of 29 cases

Se analizan 29 pacientes con anemia aplastica adquirida atendidos en el Hospital Nacional de Ninos (Costa Rica) durante el periodo de 1968-1979. En el 38% de los casos no se logro establecer posibilidad etiologica. Las manifestaciones clinicas mas frecuentes fueron palidez y sangrado anormal y en ninguno se encontro esplenomegalia. El tratamiento fue a base de anabolicos y corticosteroides, resaltando la respuesta positiva a la metenolona intramuscular en cinco de siete pacientes que no habian respondido al anabolico oral.Fallecieron 12 pacientes (41.4%) y la supervivencia proyectada a cuatro anos fue de 39.2%

Purpura trombocitopenica idiopatica en ninos. / Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in children

Se analizan 222 casos de purpura trombocitopenica idiopatica (PTI) en ninos. La mayoria de ellos estuvo en edades comprendidas entre uno a seis anos. Las manifestaciones de sangrado fueron por lo regular de tipo leve o moderado, siendo poco frecuentes los sangrados severos y a nivel del sistema nervioso central. La evolucion aguda fue la mas frecuente, observada en 78% de los casos. De los 32 ninos que evolucionaron a la cronicidad, se esplenectomizaron 17; de estos, el 65% respondio favorablemente. El tratamiento con esteroides no parecio modificar la evolucion ni el pronostico de la PTI en estos ninos