The Naming Assessment in Multicultural Europe (NAME): Development and Validation in a Multicultural Memory Clinic.

OBJECTIVE: Traditional naming tests are unsuitable to assess naming impairment in diverse populations, given the influence of culture, language, and education on naming performance. Our goal was therefore to develop and validate a new test to assess naming impairment in diverse populations: the Naming Assessment in Multicultural Europe (NAME). METHOD: We carried out a multistage pilot study. First, we generated a list of 149 potentially suitable items - e.g. from published cross-linguistic word lists and other naming tests - and selected those with a homogeneous age of acquisition and word frequency across languages. We selected three to four colored photographs for each of the 73 remaining items; 194 controls selected the most suitable photographs. Thirteen items were removed after a pilot study in 15 diverse healthy controls. The final 60-item test was validated in 39 controls and 137 diverse memory clinic patients with subjective cognitive impairment, neurological/neurodegenerative disease or psychiatric disorders in the Netherlands and Turkey (mean age: 67, SD: 11). Patients were from 15 different countries; the majority completed primary education or less (53%). RESULTS: The NAME showed excellent reliability (Spearman-Brown coefficient: 0.95; Kuder-Richardson coefficient: 0.94) and robust correlations with other language tests (ρ = .35-.73). Patients with AD/mixed dementia obtained lower scores on most (48/60) NAME items, with an area under the curve of 0.88. NAME scores were correlated with age and education, but not with acculturation or sex. CONCLUSIONS: The NAME is a promising tool to assess naming impairment in culturally, educationally, and linguistically diverse individuals.

Differential linguistic features of verbal fluency in behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia and primary progressive aphasia.

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is an early-onset neurodegenerative disorder with a heterogeneous clinical presentation. Verbal fluency is regularly used as a sensitive measure of language ability, semantic memory, and executive functioning, but qualitative changes in verbal fluency in FTD are currently overlooked. This retrospective study examined qualitative, linguistic features of verbal fluency in 137 patients with behavioral variant (bv)FTD (n = 50), or primary progressive aphasia (PPA) [25 non-fluent variant (nfvPPA), 27 semantic variant (svPPA), and 34 logopenic variant (lvPPA)] and 25 control participants. Between-group differences in clustering, switching, lexical frequency (LF), age of acquisition (AoA), neighborhood density (ND), and word length (WL) were examined in the category and letter fluency with analysis of variance adjusted for age, sex, and the total number of words. Associations with other cognitive functions were explored with linear regression analysis. The results showed that the verbal fluency performance of patients with svPPA could be distinguished from controls and other patient groups by fewer and smaller clusters, more switches, higher LF, and lower AoA (all p < 0.05). Patients with lvPPA specifically produced words with higher ND than the other patient groups (p < 0.05). Patients with bvFTD produced longer words than the PPA groups (p < 0.05). Clustering, switching, LF, AoA, and ND-but not WL-were differentially predicted by measures of language, memory, and executive functioning (range standardized regression coefficient 0.25-0.41). In addition to the total number of words, qualitative linguistic features differ between subtypes of FTD. These features provide additional information on lexical processing and semantic memory that may aid the differential diagnosis of FTD.

Impaired Knowledge of Social Norms in Dementia and Psychiatric Disorders: Validation of the Social Norms Questionnaire-Dutch Version (SNQ-NL).

The Social Norms Questionnaire-Dutch version (SNQ-NL) measures the ability to understand and identify social boundaries. We examined the psychometric characteristics of the SNQ-NL and its ability to differentiate between patients with behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD; n = 23), Alzheimer's dementia (AD; n = 26), chronic psychiatric disorders (n = 27), and control participants (n = 92). Between-group differences in the Total score, Break errors, and Overadhere errors were examined and associations with demographic variables and other cognitive functions were explored. Results showed that the SNQ-NL Total Score and Break errors differed between patients with AD and bvFTD, but not between patients with bvFTD and psychiatric disorders. Modest correlations with age, sex, and education were observed. The SNQ-NL Total score and Break errors correlated significantly with emotion recognition and verbal fluency but not with processing speed or mental flexibility. In conclusion, the SNQ-NL has sufficient construct validity and can be used to investigate knowledge of social norms in clinical populations.

Exploring Abstract Semantic Associations in the Frontotemporal Dementia Spectrum in a Dutch Population.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the differential ability of the "Test Relaties Abstracte Concepten" (TRACE), a Dutch test for abstract semantic knowledge, in frontotemporal dementia (FTD). METHODS: The TRACE was administered in patients with behavioral variant FTD (bvFTD; n = 16), nonfluent variant (nfvPPA; n = 10), logopenic variant (lvPPA; n = 10), and semantic variant primary progressive aphasia (svPPA; n = 9), and controls (n = 59). We examined group differences, performed correlational analyses with other neuropsychological tests and investigated discriminative ability. We compared the TRACE with a semantic association test for concrete stimuli (SAT). RESULTS: All patient groups, except nfvPPA, performed worse on the TRACE than controls (p < .01). svPPA patients performed worse than the other patient groups (p < .05). The TRACE discriminated well between patient groups, except nfvPPA, versus controls (all p < .01) and between svPPA versus other patient groups with high sensitivity (75-100%) and specificity (86%-92%). In bvFTD and nfvPPA the TRACE correlated with language tests (ρ > 0.6), whereas in svPPA the concrete task correlated (ρ ≥ 0.75) with language tests. Patients with bvFTD, nfvPPA and lvPPA performed lower on the TRACE than the SAT (p < .05), whereas patients with svPPA were equally impaired on both tasks (p = .2). DISCUSSION: We demonstrated impaired abstract semantic knowledge in patients with bvFTD, lvPPA, and svPPA, but not nfvPPA, with svPPA patients performing worse than the other subtypes. The TRACE was a good classifier between each patient group versus controls and between svPPA versus other patient groups. This highlights the value of incorporating semantic tests with abstract stimuli into standard neuropsychological assessment for early differential diagnosis of FTD subtypes.

Differences in Discriminability and Response Bias on Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test Delayed Recognition in Behavioral Variant Frontotemporal Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease.

OBJECTIVE: Episodic memory is impaired in Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia but thought to be relatively spared in behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD). This view is challenged by evidence of memory impairment in bvFTD. This study investigated differences in recognition memory performance between bvFTD and AD. METHOD: We performed a retrospective analysis on the recognition trial of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test in patients with bvFTD (n = 85), AD (n = 55), and control participants (n = 59). Age- and education-adjusted between-group analysis was performed on the total score and indices of discriminative ability and response bias. Correlations between recognition and measures of memory, language, executive functioning, and construction were examined. RESULTS: Patients with AD had a significantly lower total recognition score than patients with bvFTD (control 28.8 ± 1.5; bvFTD 24.8 ± 4.5; AD 23.4 ± 3.6, p < .01). Both bvFTD and AD had worse discriminative ability than controls (A' control 0.96 ± 0.03; bvFTD 0.87 ± 0.03; AD 0.84 ± 0.10, p < .01), but there was no difference in response bias (B" control 0.9 ± 0.2; bvFTD 1.6 ± 1.47; AD 1.4± 1.4, p < .01). AD had worse discriminability than bvFTD (p < .05). Discriminability was associated with memory for both patient groups (median correlation coefficient r = .34) and additionally associated with language (r = .31), but not executive functioning (r = -.03) in bvFTD. Response bias was unrelated to other cognitive functions (r = -.02). CONCLUSIONS: Discriminability, but not response bias, differentiated patients with bvFTD from AD. The presence of an impaired discrimination index suggests a "pure" (recognition) memory deficit in bvFTD.

Correction to: Cognitive profiles discriminate between genetic variants of behavioral frontotemporal dementia.

The original version of this article unfortunately contained a mistake.

Cognitive profiles discriminate between genetic variants of behavioral frontotemporal dementia.

INTRODUCTION: Trials to test disease-modifying treatments for frontotemporal dementia are eagerly awaited and sensitive instruments to assess potential treatment effects are increasingly urgent, yet lacking thus far. We aimed to identify gene-specific instruments assessing clinical onset and disease progression by comparing cognitive functioning between bvFTD patients across genetic mutations. METHODS: We examined differences in 7 cognitive domains between bvFTD patients with GRN (n = 20), MAPT (n = 29) or C9orf72 (n = 31) mutations, and non-carriers (n = 24), and described longitudinal (M = 22.6 months, SD = 16.6) data in a subsample (n = 27). RESULTS: Patients showed overall cognitive impairment, except memory recall, working memory and visuoconstruction. GRN patients performed lower on executive function (mean difference - 2.1; 95%CI - 4.1 to - 0.5) compared to MAPT and lower on attention compared to MAPT (mean difference - 2.5; 95%CI - 4.7 to - 0.3) and C9orf72 (mean difference - 2.4; 95%CI - 4.5 to - 0.3). Only MAPT patients were impaired on delayed recall (mean difference - 1.4; 95%CI - 2.1 to - 0.7). GRN patients declined rapidly on attention and memory, MAPT declined in confrontation naming, whereas C9orf72 patients were globally impaired but remained relatively stable over time on all cognitive domains. DISCUSSION: This study shows gene-specific cognitive profiles in bvFTD, which underlines the value of neuropsychological tests as outcome measures in upcoming trials for genetic bvFTD.

Functional connectivity and microstructural white matter changes in phenocopy frontotemporal dementia.

OBJECTIVES: Phenocopy frontotemporal dementia (phFTD) is a rare and poorly understood clinical syndrome. PhFTD shows core behavioural variant FTD (bvFTD) symptoms without associated cognitive deficits and brain abnormalities on conventional MRI and without progression. In contrast to phFTD, functional connectivity and white matter (WM) microstructural abnormalities have been observed in bvFTD. We hypothesise that phFTD belongs to the same disease spectrum as bvFTD and investigated whether functional connectivity and microstructural WM changes similar to bvFTD are present in phFTD. METHODS: Seven phFTD patients without progression or alternative psychiatric diagnosis, 12 bvFTD patients and 17 controls underwent resting state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Default mode network (DMN) connectivity and WM measures were compared between groups. RESULTS: PhFTD showed subtly increased DMN connectivity and subtle microstructural changes in frontal WM tracts. BvFTD showed abnormalities in similar regions as phFTD, but had lower increased DMN connectivity and more extensive microstructural WM changes. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings can be interpreted as neuropathological changes in phFTD and are in support of the hypothesis that phFTD and bvFTD may belong to the same disease spectrum. Advanced MRI techniques, objectively identifying brain abnormalities, would therefore be potentially suited to improve the diagnosis of phFTD. KEY POINTS: • PhFTD shows brain abnormalities that are similar to bvFTD. • PhFTD shows increased functional connectivity in the parietal default mode network. • PhFTD shows microstructural white matter abnormalities in the frontal lobe. • We hypothesise phFTD and bvFTD may belong to the same disease spectrum.