Exploring the synergy between copper electrolytes and molecularly engineered thiocyanate-free cyclometalated ruthenium sensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells.

Two novel cyclometalated ruthenium complexes, RC-4 and RC-5, featuring 1-phenylisoquinoline and phenyl quinazoline as ancillary ligands, respectively, were synthesized to investigate their viability with the environmentally friendly copper (Cu) redox mediator, [Cu(bpye)2]2+/+. The modification of the ligand environment resulted in variations in the energetics, photophysical properties, and photovoltaic performance of RC-4 and RC-5 sensitizers. Despite RC-5 sensitizer possessing a more positive ground state potential of 1.19 V versus the NHE, the RC-4 sensitizer, with a lower HOMO level of 0.72 V versus NHE, exhibited superior photovoltaic performance along with the Cu electrolyte, attributed to its enhanced light harvesting ability, improved lifetime and reduced back electron transfer, contributing to higher Jsc, Voc, and PCE.

Tandem Reactions of Electrophilic Indoles toward Indolizines and Their Subsequent Transformations through Pd(II)-Mediated C-H Functionalization to Access Polyring-Fused N-Heterocycles.

A simple and efficient synthetic approach for generating a library of structurally novel indolizines has been developed via sequential 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition-ring opening processes. Using this methodology, a series of indolizines bearing different substituents were made in moderate to good yields. The presence of two functionalizable C-H bonds in these indolizine motifs makes them attractive for accessing fused indolizine scaffolds. In this line, we have introduced palladium-mediated site-selective C-H functionalizations, where the N-center and the two C-H centers of the indolizine moiety can be readily functionalized to generate fused N-heterocycles. Utilizing a Pd-mediated dual C-H activation of 5-benzoyl-substituted indolizine afforded 6H-indeno-indolizine, and a tetracene, viz., indolizino[2,1-b]indoles, was produced in the same substrate by the Pd-catalyzed selective C-H amination in the presence of oxygen.

A Review on the Synthetic Methods towards Benzothienobenzothiophenes.

Benzothienobenzothiophenes (BTBTs) are a class of heteroacenes for which two distinct isomers have been identified depending on the locations of the fused benzothiophene motifs. Benzothienobenzothiophenes represent a class of heteroacenes demonstrating remarkable electronic properties that make them prominent in the realm of organic semiconductors. The structure of BTBTs, incorporating two sulfur atoms, contributes to their unique electronic characteristics, including narrow bandgaps and effective charge transport pathways. These compounds have gained attention for their high charge carrier mobility, making them desirable candidates for application in organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) and other electronic devices. Researchers have explored various synthetic strategies to design and tailor the properties of BTBT derivatives, leading to advancements in the development of high-performance organic semiconductors. Various synthetic techniques for benzothienobenzothiophenes have been reported in the literature including multistep synthesis, tandem transformations, electrochemical synthesis, and annulations. This review investigates the generality of each synthetic methodology by highlighting its benefits and drawbacks, and it analyses all synthetic approaches described for the creation of the two isomers. For the advantage of the readers, we have delved upon every mechanism of the reactions that are known. Finally, we have also summarized the synthetic methodologies that are used for making benzothienobenzothiophene analogues for material applications.

Annulation reactions of electrophilic benzannulated heterocycles towards heteroacenes.

The current review describes different annulation strategies reported with electrophilic benzannulated heterocycles for accessing heteroacenes. For the past two decades, the chemistry of electrophilic benzannulated heterocycles was extensively investigated, and several dipolar cycloadditions, metal and organo-catalyzed transformations were introduced for the generation of fused heterocycles. In this review, we have collected all the reports where the annulation of electrophilic benzannulated heterocycles results in a fully aromatic system, viz. heteroacenes with tri-, tetra-, and pentacyclic rings. We reviewed every paper on the synthesis of fused heterocycles that was accessible and categorized the review into several parts based on the electrophilic benzannulated heterocycle used in the heteroacene synthesis such as electrophilic indole, electrophilic benzothiophene, and so forth. The generality and mechanistic postulates of each methodology are highlighted. In addition, we have also tried to feature the advantages or shortcomings of each method and have mentioned the possible applications of these methodologies for accessing heteroacenes for material applications.

Discovery of Oxygen Induced Chemoselectivity in Pd-Catalyzed C-H Functionalization: Cross-Dehydrogenative Coupling vs C-H Amination.

We have come across a substrate namely, 5-benzoyl-pyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinoline in which three different functionalizable C-H bonds were identified that could be judiciously transformed site selectively for the generation of complex polyring fused N-heterocycles. A Pd-catalyzed cross-dehydrogenative coupling of 5-benzoyl-pyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinoline afforded 8H-indeno-pyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinolinone and an oxygen induced palladium catalyzed selective C-H amination in the same substrate provided a pentacene viz., 9H-indolo-pyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinoline. We also observed the formation of a multiring fused benzazepine scaffold by the site selective C-H amination in 5-(4-nitro benzoyl)-pyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinoline.

Copper-Catalyzed Annulation of Electrophilic Benzannulated Heterocycles with 2-Aminopyridine and 2-Aminoquinoline: Direct Access toward Polyring-Fused Imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines.

We have developed a direct method for the synthesis of polyring-fused imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines via a copper-catalyzed annulation of electrophilic benzannulated heterocycles with 2-aminopyridine and 2-aminoquinoline. From 3-nitroindoles and 2-aminopyridine, we could synthesize tetracenes, viz., indole-fused imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines, and by starting from 2-aminoquinoline, we could generate pentacenes, viz., indolo-imidazo[1,2-a]quinolines. In addition, we could also extend the methodology toward the synthesis of benzothieno-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines starting from 3-nitrobenzothiophene. Furthermore, the basic photophysical properties of these synthesized heteroacenes were evaluated.

Inverse Electron Demand Diels Alder Reaction of Aza-o-Quinone Methides and Enaminones: Accessing 3-Aroyl Quinolines and Indeno[1,2-b]quinolinones.

We have developed a Diels Alder cycloaddition route toward 3-aroyl quinolines from enaminones and in situ generated aza-o-quinone methides. The reaction was found to be general with a range of substituted enaminones and aza-o-quinone methides, and we could validate the applicability of the methodology in gram scale. We also demonstrated a one-pot strategy toward 3-acyl quinolines starting from the corresponding aliphatic ketones. Finally, we utilized the 3-aroyl quinolines for synthesizing indeno[1,2-b]quinolinones via a Pd-catalyzed dual C-H activation approach.

Base-Mediated Annulation of Electrophilic Benzothiophene with Naphthols and Phenols: Accessing Benzothiophene-Fused Heteroacenes.

A base-mediated annulation of 2-nitrobenzothiophenes with naphthols was realized for the synthesis of hitherto unknown class of heteroacenes, namely benzothieno[2,3-b]naphthofurans. By using naphthols with a hydroxyl group positioned at 1st or 2nd position, we could synthesize two positional isomers, benzothieno[2,3-b]naphtho[2,1-d]furans or benzothieno[2,3-b]naphtho[2,3-d]furans. The annulation was found to be general with a range of substituted 2-nitrobenzothiophenes and naphthols. This heteroannulation of benzothiophene was extended using a range of phenols affording the corresponding benzothieno[2,3-b]benzofurans in moderate yields. The basic photophysical properties of these heteroacenes were evaluated, and we also demonstrated the applicability of this annulation on the gram scale.

Recent Advances towards the Synthesis and Material Applications of Indoloindoles.

An important class of N-heteroacenes is indoloindoles which are air-stable, electron-rich and possess many tuneable properties. Initially, indoloindoles were explored for potential biological applications but current interest is based on their performance as photovoltaic materials. With growing applications of indoloindoles across multiple facets as organic functional materials, the need for efficient methods to synthesize and functionalize indoloindoles has taken a centre stage. Over the years, synthetic routes leading to indoloindoles have evolved from multistep protocols to one-pot multicomponent synthesis. Present literature boasts of a variety of reports that employ metals such as Cu, Ru, Rh, Pd, or Au to mediate the reaction towards indoloindoles. As alternatives to such metal-mediated methods, researchers have also developed metal-free and catalyst-free conditions. Indoloindoles, which are fundamentally fused-indoles, are often synthesized by transforming indole derivatives but methods that employ anilines or arynes as the starting substrates are equally abundant. The present review highlights the rich diversity and versatility of recent literature for the synthesis of indolo[3,2-b]indoles, indolo[2,3-b]indoles, indolo[7,6-g]indoles, and indolo[5,4-e]indoles. This review discusses protocols that were explicitly designed to obtain the above-mentioned indoloindoles and also explores several other methods that can be adapted to access said heteroacenes. Available mechanistic details pertaining to novel transformations have been detailed for the readers. Various applications where indoloindoles function as organic light-emitting diodes, organic field-effect transistors, solar cells, etc. have also been delved into before concluding with an outlook on future research.

Advances in the Synthesis of Fused 1,2,3-Triazoles via a MCR-Intramolecular Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition Approach.

The present review narrates several reports which deal with the synthesis of fused 1,2,3-triazole containing scaffolds following a sequential multicomponent reaction (MCR)-intramolecular azide-alkyne cycloaddition (IAAC) approach. The reviewed reactions were cleverly designed so as to incorporate azide and alkyne functionalities in the MCR product which was then subjected to IAAC. The review is divided into two sections based on the number of components in the multicomponent reaction. We have aimed at a critical discussion and also have highlighted either advantages or disadvantages of each methodology.

Unprecedented access to functionalized pyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines from the domino reaction of isoquinolinium ylides and electrophilic benzannulated heterocycles.

We have come across an unexpected reaction between electrophilic indoles and isoquinolinium methylides for accessing functionalized pyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines. The reaction was found in general to yield the products in good yields. We also observed the formation of S-S-bridged bis-pyrrolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines from the reaction of 3-nitro benzothiophene and isoquinolinium methylides.

Synthesis of Benzothienobenzofurans via Annulation of Electrophilic Benzothiophenes with Phenols.

We have developed a metal-free, mild, and green synthetic route toward benzothieno[3,2-b]benzofurans by the annulation of 3-nitrobenzothiophene with phenols. The reaction was found to be general with a range of substituted phenols. In addition, we could extend the methodology for the synthesis of pentacenes and could demonstrate the synthesis in gram-scale. Moreover, we extended the strategy for the synthesis of benzothieno[2,3-b]benzofurans by starting from 2-nitrobenzothiophenes.

Regulating Back Electron Transfer through Donor and π-Spacer Alterations in Benzothieno[3,2-b]indole-based Dye-sensitized Solar Cells.

Three metal-free organic D-π-A dyes with benzothieno[3,2-b]indole as electron donor, cyanoacrylic acid as both electron acceptor and anchoring group with benzene (BID-1), thiophene (BID-2) and furan (BID-3) as π-spacers were designed and synthesized for application in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). A planar and electron-rich heterocycle such as benzothieno[3,2-b]indole offers better backbone rigidity and improves charge transport properties in comparison to indolo[3,2-b]indole donor, previously reported from our group. Additionally, we synthesized a benzothieno[3,2-b]indole donor grafted with longer alkyl chains which efficiently prevented the approach of oxidized species in the electrolyte coming closer to semiconductor thereby arresting recombination. A power conversion efficiency of 4.11 % was achieved for dye-sensitized solar cells based on the furan π-spacer benzothieno[3,2-b]indole dye BID-3 in comparison to the corresponding indolo[3,2-b]indole dye (IID-3) having an efficiency of 1.71 %. Detailed interfacial electrical measurements along with theoretical calculations disclosed the mechanism of back electron transfer and improvement in photovoltaic performance with respect to variation in both donor and π-spacer.

Tandem α-Arylation/Cyclization of 4-Haloacetoacetates with Arynes: A Metal-Free Approach toward 4-Aryl-3-(2 H)-furanones.

An efficacious, metal-free strategy has been developed for the synthesis of 4-aryl-3-(2 H)-furanones. The reaction proceeds via the nucleophilic addition of an active methylene compound to the aryne followed by ring closing of the adduct. The reaction proceeds under mild conditions, is applicable for gram-scale synthesis of 4-aryl-3-(2 H)-furanones, and is general for a range of substituted arynes and haloacetates.

Alpha-carboxynucleoside phosphonates: direct-acting inhibitors of viral DNA polymerases.

Acyclic nucleoside phosphonates represent a well-defined class of clinically used nucleoside analogs. All acyclic nucleoside phosphonates need intracellular phosphorylation before they can bind viral DNA polymerases. Recently, a novel class of alpha-carboxynucleoside phosphonates have been designed to mimic the natural 2'-deoxynucleotide 5'-triphosphate substrates of DNA polymerases. They contain a carboxyl group in the phosphonate moiety linked to the nucleobase through a cyclic or acyclic bridge. Alpha-carboxynucleoside phosphonates act as viral DNA polymerase inhibitors without any prior requirement of metabolic conversion. Selective inhibitory activity against retroviral reverse transcriptase and herpesvirus DNA polymerases have been demonstrated. These compounds have a unique mechanism of inhibition of viral DNA polymerases, and provide possibilities for further modifications to optimize and fine tune their antiviral DNA polymerase spectrum.

Sequential Ugi reaction/base-induced ring closing/IAAC protocol toward triazolobenzodiazepine-fused diketopiperazines and hydantoins.

A practical three-step protocol for the assembly of triazolobenzodiazepine-fused diketopiperazines and hydantoins has been developed. The synthesis of these tetracyclic ring systems was initiated by an Ugi reaction, which brought together all necessary functionalities for further transformations. The Ugi adducts were then subjected to a base-induced ring closing and an intramolecular azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction in succession to obtain highly fused benzodiazepine frameworks.

Accessing highly functionalized cyclopentanoids via a cascade palladation approach: unprecedented benzylic C-H activation towards cyclopentenoindanes.

A Pd-catalyzed synthesis of 3,4,5-trisubstituted cyclopentenes from diazabicyclic olefins and o-iodobenzoates has been developed. The hitherto unknown cascade process involves three stages: carbopalladation, oxypalladation and a Tsuji-Trost reaction. We have also developed a facile route involving a novel benzylic C-H activation towards cyclopentenoindane moieties.

One-Pot MCR-Oxidation Approach toward Indole-Fused Heteroacenes.

A straightforward synthetic route toward indole-fused heteroacenes was developed. The strategy is composed of a one-pot process starting with a multicomponent reaction of cyclohexanone, primary amine and N-tosyl-3-nitroindole followed by an oxidation step. The one-pot approach was found to be general, affording both symmetric and nonsymmetric indolo[3,2-b]indoles in good yields. The strategy was also utilized for accessing 5-ring fused benzo[g]indolo[3,2-b]indole. We could extend the methodology for the synthesis of benzothieno[3,2-b]indoles starting from 3-nitrobenzothiophene. The importance of the developed method was exemplified by performing the reaction sequence on gram scale and also by the synthetic transformations of indolo[3,2-b]indoles. In addition, the change in photophysical properties with extension of conjugation of the synthesized heteroacenes was studied.

Inhibition of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) by ethyl ketopentenoate (EKP) induces treatment-resistant epileptic seizures in zebrafish.

Epilepsy is a chronic brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizures due to abnormal, excessive and synchronous neuronal activities in the brain. It affects approximately 65 million people worldwide, one third of which are still estimated to suffer from refractory seizures. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) that converts glutamate into GABA is a key enzyme in the dynamic regulation of neural network excitability. Importantly, clinical evidence shows that lowered GAD activity is associated with several forms of epilepsy which are often treatment resistant. In the present study, we synthetized and explored the possibility of using ethyl ketopentenoate (EKP), a lipid-permeable GAD-inhibitor, to induce refractory seizures in zebrafish larvae. Our results demonstrate that EKP evoked robust convulsive locomotor activities, excessive epileptiform discharges and upregulated c-fos expression in zebrafish. Moreover, transgenic animals in which neuronal cells express apoaequorin, a Ca2+-sensitive bioluminescent photoprotein, displayed large luminescence signals indicating strong EKP-induced neuronal activation. Molecular docking data indicated that this proconvulsant activity resulted from the direct inhibition of both gad67 and gad65. Limited protective efficacy of tested anti-seizure drugs (ASDs) demonstrated a high level of treatment resistance of EKP-induced seizures. We conclude that the EKP zebrafish model can serve as a high-throughput platform for novel ASDs discovery.

Heteroannulation of 3-Nitroindoles and 3-Nitrobenzo[b]thiophenes: A Multicomponent Approach toward Pyrrole-Fused Heterocycles.

A simple, efficient, and general multicomponent reaction involving an enolizable ketone, a primary amine, and an N-protected 3-nitroindole was developed for the synthesis of a range of functionalized pyrrolo[3,2-b]indoles. The methodology was efficaciously utilized for the "pyrroloindoliztion" of natural products, the pyrrolization of 3-nitrobenzo[b]thiophene, and the gram-scale synthesis of pyrroloindole. Furthermore, a "one-pot" approach for accessing indolo[3,2-b]indoles was realized.