Implementation Drivers of Data-Based Instruction for Students With Intensive Learning Needs: A Systematic Review.

Despite decades of research efforts, data-based instruction (DBI) for students with intensive intervention needs are not being widely used in practice as anticipated, and many educators have difficulties in implementing it. This systematic review aimed to examine what kinds of implementation drivers and strategies have been used to support educators implementing DBI and what kinds of implementation outcomes researchers have measured. Eighteen studies were synthesized using the Implementation Drivers framework and Implementation Outcomes taxonomy and were quality appraised. We found that the majority of studies primarily used competency drivers to increase teachers' DBI expertise, while a limited number of studies focused on organizational and leadership drivers. Acceptability and fidelity were frequently assessed as implementation outcomes. We discussed the implications of the findings, including the need for researchers to incorporate implementation drivers and outcomes at diverse levels to best support educators' implementation of DBI, as well as the limitations of this review, such as the limited generalizability of the findings.

Distilling Check-in/Check-Out into Its Core Practice Elements Through an Expert Consensus Process.

Check-in/Check-out (CICO) is a widely implemented evidence-based program for supporting students with at-risk levels of social and emotional behavior concerns. It is comprised of several core features described in the previous literature, including practice elements, which are the specific actions that are delivered directly to students, and implementation components, which are actions that support the implementation by adults. Practice elements and implementation components are both important to implementation but have been combined and conflated in descriptions of CICO implementation. Well-defined and differentiated practice elements could provide improved clarity in communicating implementation expectations to front-line implementers as well as support future research into essential active ingredients and measures of front-line intervention fidelity. The purpose of the present study was to distill, differentiate, and operationally define the student-facing practice elements of CICO. A panel of research experts and practice experts participated in a three-round modified e-Delphi process that led to the identification and operational definition of 19 discreet practice elements organized into five domains. Results are discussed in terms in implications for future development of measures of commitment and intervention fidelity, future research into active ingredients of CICO, and in terms of how well-defined practice elements can improve communication of implementation expectations for front-line implementers of CICO such as teachers. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12310-021-09495-x.

Preschool teachers' selection of social communication interventions for children with autism: An application of the theory of planned behavior.

LAY ABSTRACT: Preschool special educators' are more likely to choose an educational practice to teach a young child with autism a social communication skill if they have positive beliefs about it. We asked preschool special educators to read a description of an autistic student and their social communication goal and imagine they were the student's teacher. We then asked them to pick one of five practices to teach the student. We also asked them questions to understand their attitudes about, confidence in their ability to use, and their perception of their coworkers' support of each practice. There are many research-based practices that a teacher could use to help children learn, and preschool teachers often make these decisions for their students. Teachers' beliefs varied in how supportive they were of each practice, and research shows people are more likely to do something that their beliefs support. In this study, they had more supportive beliefs and were more likely to use some practices, like naturalistic intervention, than other practices, like discrete trial teaching. By knowing this, researchers can help teachers use practices that their beliefs support and help change teachers' beliefs to be supportive of a practice they may need to use.

The Use of Generalizability Theory to Inform Sampling of Educator Language Used With Preschoolers With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Purpose A myriad features can impact the nature, frequency, and length of adult-child interactions important for language learning. Empirical investigations of language learning opportunities for young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) provide limited generalizable insight, with inferences more constrained to the sample than is often considered. The aim of this study was to explore a multidimensional understanding of reliability and define optimal measurement procedures for a measurement approach used to examine the language of preschool educators interacting with children with ASD. Method We employed the logic of Generalizability Theory to differentiate sources of error for two measurement facets, occasion and observer. We video-recorded four 15-min occasions of educator-child interactions for 11 participants with ASD during free-play in their respective inclusive preschool classrooms. Two trained observers coded all videos for six educator language variables: open-ended questions/statements, choice questions, yes/no questions, imitation prompts, statements, and other talk. Results The generalizability studies illustrated that, across all variables measured, observer accounted for little to no error. Occasion, however, accounted for much of the error for all language variables. To determine the number of occasions needed to achieve stable estimates of the variables, we manipulated occasion in the decision study. Five to more than 15 occasions were needed to achieve stability in educator language variables. Conclusion To advance our understanding of the language learning environments of preschool classrooms that serve children with ASD, researchers must understand how aspects of the measurement design in those environments, such as occasion, impact the inferences they make.

Efficacy of the ASAP Intervention for Preschoolers with ASD: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial.

The advancing social-communication and play (ASAP) intervention was designed as a classroom-based intervention, in which the educational teams serving preschool-aged children with autism spectrum disorder are trained to implement the intervention in order to improve these children's social-communication and play skills. In this 4-year, multi-site efficacy trial, classrooms were randomly assigned to ASAP or a business-as-usual control condition. A total of 78 classrooms, including 161 children, enrolled in this study. No significant group differences were found for the primary outcomes of children's social-communication and play. However, children in the ASAP group showed increased classroom engagement. Additionally, participation in ASAP seemed to have a protective effect for one indicator of teacher burnout. Implications for future research are discussed.

Describing treatment intensity in milieu teaching interventions for children with developmental disabilities: a review.

PURPOSE: This investigation aimed to apply the dosage framework proposed by Warren, Fey, and Yoder (2007) to variations of milieu language teaching intervention strategies to explore how each of the dosage parameters (i.e., dose, dose form, dose frequency, total duration, and cumulative intervention intensity) was reported in the located empirically based applications with learners between birth and 23 years of age. METHOD: A systematic search located existing studies that implemented a milieu teaching intervention for children with developmental disabilities. Dosage data were then extracted from 42 studies along with study characteristics and participant characteristics. RESULTS: Only 37.8% of empirical investigations provided a clear definition of treatment intensity and reported the full range of dosage parameters, thus making it difficult to compare the results across investigations. Of the investigations that reported on all dosage parameters, the majority were single-case design as opposed to group design studies. CONCLUSIONS: Given the limited reporting of dosage parameters in existing studies, there is a need for closer attention to reporting this information in early communication intervention protocols. Replication and customization of interventions for learners experiencing developmental disabilities will only be possible with additional empirical examination of dosage parameters.

Comparative efficacy of LEAP, TEACCH and non-model-specific special education programs for preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders.

LEAP and TEACCH represent two comprehensive treatment models (CTMs) that have been widely used across several decades to educate young children with autism spectrum disorders. The purpose of this quasi-experimental study was to compare high fidelity LEAP (n = 22) and TEACCH (n = 25) classrooms to each other and a control condition (n = 28), in which teachers in high quality special education programs used non-model-specific practices. A total of 198 children were included in data analysis. Across conditions, children's performances improved over time. This study raises issues of the replication of effects for CTMs, and whether having access to a high quality special education program is as beneficial as access to a specific CTM.

Host factor transcriptional regulation contributes to preferential expression of HIV type 1 in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells.

HIV type 1 (HIV-1) replicates preferentially in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells for unclear reasons. We show increased HIV-1 expression is irrespective of viral tropism for chemokine receptors as previously suggested, but rather transcription of the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) is increased in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells. Increased expression of HIV-1 message is also confirmed in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells from HIV-1-infected individuals ex vivo. In exploring a transcriptional mechanism, we identify a novel c-maf (required for IL-4 expression) transcription factor binding site just upstream of the dual NF-κB/NFAT binding sites in the proximal HIV-1 LTR. We demonstrate that c-maf binds this site in vivo and synergistically augments HIV-1 transcription in cooperation with NFAT2 and NF-κB p65, but not NFAT1 or NF-κB p50. Conversely, small interfering RNA inhibition of c-maf reduces HIV-1 transcription in IL-4-producing T cells. Thus, c-maf increases HIV-1 expression in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells by binding the proximal HIV-1 LTR and augmenting HIV-1 transcription in partnership with NFAT2 and NF-κB p65 specifically. This has important implications for selective targeting of transcription factors during HIV-1 infection because, over the course of HIV-1 progression/AIDS, IL-4-producing T cells frequently predominate and substantially contribute to disease pathology.

Responding to rule violations or rule following: A comparison of two versions of the Good Behavior Game with kindergarten students.

The purpose of this study was to examine the differential effects of 2 versions of the Good Behavior Game (Barrish, Saunders, & Wolf, 1969), allocating teacher attention to rule violations (GBG-response cost) and to rule following (GBG-reinforcement), on student and teacher behavior. The participants were 6 kindergarten students who were nominated as the 3 most disruptive students in each classroom. The study was conducted using single-case A/B/A/C/B/C reversal design with each teacher randomly assigned to either GBG-response cost or GBG-reinforcement condition for implementation in the first B phase. Results indicated that both versions were effective at reducing rule violations and that GBG-reinforcement consistently resulted in either comparable or lower levels of rule violations across classrooms and students. In addition, GBG-reinforcement was preferred by the teachers as a better fit to their classrooms. The implications of the findings to teachers and school psychologists in classroom settings are discussed.

Examining dynamic visual scene displays: implications for arranging and teaching symbol selection.

PURPOSE: Evidence supports using visual scene displays (VSDs) with young children using speech-generating devices. This study examined initial and subsequent performance during VSD use by children age 24-27 and 33-36 months to explore child characteristics that may relate to navigational skill differences. METHOD: Children located 9 vocabulary items using a dynamic VSD. Tests of mean difference and analyses of variance were both completed to examine within- and between-age-group performance for accuracy and latency across 3 time points: at initial exposure, at criterion, and at a 2-week maintenance session for each of 2 linked navigational pages. RESULTS: Results indicated that, at initial exposure, older participants' symbol selections were significantly more accurate and significantly faster when navigating through each page of a 2-page dynamic VSD. Results also indicated that though younger participants required significantly more sessions to achieve mastery, when the effects of practice and language comprehension were controlled, performance differences between age groups were not found when maintenance was evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: Older children perform better than younger children on initial opportunities. However, younger children learn to use VSDs in relatively few instructional opportunities, suggesting that VSDs can be used with children as young as 2 years of age.

Task engagement and escape maintained challenging behavior: differential effects of general and explicit cues when implementing a signaled delay in the delivery of reinforcement.

This study was designed to evaluate the effects of explicit and general delay cues when implementing a tolerance for a delay in the delivery of a reinforcement procedure to increase task engagement and decrease escape maintained challenging behavior. Two preschool children with autism participated in an alternating treatments design with changing criterions for task engagement. For both children, descriptive and experimental analyses verified that the challenging behavior functioned to escape instructional task demands. Subsequently, two types of tasks were identified for each participant with assignment to either the explicit or general cue procedures. Both participants demonstrated increased task engagement with concurrent decreases in challenging behavior with both types of delay cues, though rate of successful work unit completion advanced more quickly with explicit delay cues.

STAT1 expression in dendritic cells, but not T cells, is required for immunity to Leishmania major.

The generation of Th1 responses is important for resistance to intracellular pathogens, including the parasite, Leishmania major. Although IFN-gammaR/STAT1 signaling promotes a Th1 response via the up-regulation of T-bet, the requirement for STAT1 in Th1 cell differentiation remains controversial. Although in some cases Th1 cells develop independently of STAT1, STAT1(-/-) mice fail to develop a Th1 response during L. major infection. However, the interpretation of this result is complicated by the role STAT1 plays in Ag presentation and, more importantly, in elimination of parasites by macrophages, because both defective Ag presentation and increased parasite burden can influence Th cell development. To resolve this issue, we assessed the ability of STAT1(-/-) T cells to become Th1 cells and protect mice against L. major following adoptive transfer into STAT1-sufficient mice. We found that whereas T-bet is critical for the differentiation of protective Th1 cells during L. major infection, IFN-gammaR and STAT1 are dispensable. Given that a STAT1-independent Th1 cell response was generated by STAT1-sufficient APCs, but not by STAT1(-/-) cells, we next addressed whether dendritic cells (DCs) require STAT1 signaling to effectively present Ag. We found that STAT1(-/-) DCs had impaired up-regulation of MHC and costimulatory molecules, and, as a consequence, the absence of STAT1 resulted in reduced Th1 cell priming. Taken together, these results demonstrate that T cell expression of STAT1 is not required for the development of Th1 cells protective against L. major and instead stress the importance of STAT1 signaling in DCs for the optimal induction of Th1 responses.

Interleukin 27 negatively regulates the development of interleukin 17-producing T helper cells during chronic inflammation of the central nervous system.

Studies have focused on the events that influence the development of interleukin 17 (IL-17)-producing T helper cells (T(H)-17 cells) associated with autoimmunity, such as experimental autoimmune encephalitis, but relatively little is known about the cytokines that antagonize T(H)-17 cell effector responses. Here we show that IL-27 receptor-deficient mice chronically infected with Toxoplasma gondii developed severe neuroinflammation that was CD4+ T cell dependent and was associated with a prominent IL-17 response. In vitro, treatment of naive primary T cells with IL-27 suppressed the development T(H)-17 cells induced by IL-6 and transforming growth factor-beta, which was dependent on the intracellular signaling molecule STAT1 but was independent of inhibition of IL-6 signaling mediated by the suppressor protein SOCS3. Thus IL-27, a potent inhibitor of T(H)-17 cell development, may be a useful target for treating inflammatory diseases mediated by these cells.

Obtained versus programmed reinforcement practical considerations in the treatment of escape-reinforced aggression.

This investigation provides a preliminary examination of the difference between programmed and obtained reinforcement rates and its potential influence during treatment of aggression in a natural setting. Following a functional analysis that suggested that the aggression of a boy with autism was negatively reinforced, intervention was implemented by the boy's mother. Concurrent fixed-ratio (FR) 1 FR 1 schedules of escape were arranged for manding and aggression. When mands failed to compete effectively with aggression, obtained reinforcement ratios were calculated; these indicated that obtained reinforcement varied from the programmed schedule for aggression but not for mands. Increasing the rate of prompts for mands resulted in an increase in mands and a decrease in aggression to near-zero levels.

Cutting edge: early IL-4 production governs the requirement for IL-27-WSX-1 signaling in the development of protective Th1 cytokine responses following Leishmania major infection.

There are conflicting reports on the requirements for the IL-27-WSX-1 pathway in the development of Th type 1 responses and resistance to intracellular pathogens; although early IFN-gamma production and resistance to Leishmania major are impaired in the absence of WSX-1 signaling, WSX-1(-/-) mice generate robust IFN-gamma responses and control infection with other intracellular protozoan pathogens. In this report, we resolve these conflicting observations and demonstrate that, in the absence of IL-4, WSX-1 is not required for early IFN-gamma production and control of L. major. Thus, the requirement for WSX-1 signaling in Th type 1 cell differentiation is restricted to conditions in which IL-4 is produced.

The effects of presession attention on problem behavior maintained by different reinforcers.

The effect of presession attention on the later occurrence of problem behavior was examined with elementary-school children with a range of disabilities. Results of analogue functional analyses suggested an escape function, an attention function, or both. Following the analogue functional analyses, the effects of two antecedent conditions (10-min ignore vs. 10-min attention) were compared on problem behavior in subsequent test conditions. For participants who displayed attention-maintained problem behavior, the test condition involved contingent attention for problem behavior. For participants who displayed escape-maintained problem behavior, the test condition involved contingent escape for problem behavior. Results indicated that participants who displayed attention-maintained problem behavior displayed less problem behavior following presession exposure to attention than when ignored. No such effect was found for presession attention on escape-maintained problem behavior. We discuss matching antecedent-based interventions to the results of functional analysis.