Optimizing the Bioavailability of Subcutaneously Administered Biotherapeutics Through Mechanochemical Drivers.

The subcutaneous route offers myriad benefits for the administration of biotherapeutics in both acute and chronic diseases, including convenience, cost effectiveness and the potential for automation through closed-loop systems. Recent advances in parenteral administration devices and the use of additives which enhance drug dispersion have generated substantial additional interest in IV to SQ switching studies. Designing pre-clinical and clinical studies using SQ mediated delivery however requires deep understanding of complex inter-related physiologies and transport pathways governing the interstitial matrix, vascular system and lymphatic channels. This expert review will highlight key structural features which contribute to transport and biodistribution in the subcutaneous space and also assess the impact of drug formulations. Based on the rapidly growing interest in the SQ delivery route, a number of potential areas for future development are highlighted, which are likely to allow continued evolution and innovation in this important area.

Towards next generation adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonists.

The Adenosine A2A receptor is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor superfamily. It plays a key role in numerous physiological processes through the central nervous system and in peripheral tissues. Functional interactions between the A2A and dopamine D2 receptor has spurred interest in the use of antagonists as anti-Parkinson drugs. Additionally, oncology drugs are now being designed based on the potential for A2A antagonists to function as immunotherapeutics. From early studies based on classical xanthine type A2A antagonists through second generation agents, this mini review will cover aspects of the discovery, development, chemical synthesis and medicinal evaluation of this important class of drugs.

Immune focusing and enhanced neutralization induced by HIV-1 gp140 chemical cross-linking.

Experimental vaccine antigens based upon the HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) have failed to induce neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against the majority of circulating viral strains as a result of antibody evasion mechanisms, including amino acid variability and conformational instability. A potential vaccine design strategy is to stabilize Env, thereby focusing antibody responses on constitutively exposed, conserved surfaces, such as the CD4 binding site (CD4bs). Here, we show that a largely trimeric form of soluble Env can be stably cross-linked with glutaraldehyde (GLA) without global modification of antigenicity. Cross-linking largely conserved binding of all potent broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) tested, including CD4bs-specific VRC01 and HJ16, but reduced binding of several non- or weakly neutralizing antibodies and soluble CD4 (sCD4). Adjuvanted administration of cross-linked or unmodified gp140 to rabbits generated indistinguishable total gp140-specific serum IgG binding titers. However, sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 showed significantly increased CD4bs-specific antibody binding compared to animals receiving unmodified gp140. Moreover, peptide mapping of sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 revealed increased binding to gp120 C1 and V1V2 regions. Finally, neutralization titers were significantly elevated in sera from animals receiving cross-linked gp140 rather than unmodified gp140. We conclude that cross-linking favors antigen stability, imparts antigenic modifications that selectively refocus antibody specificity and improves induction of NAbs, and might be a useful strategy for future vaccine design.

Microwave accelerated synthesis of PET image contrast agents for AD research.

Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) offers the potential to provide early onset diagnosis and subsequent intervention, including guided treatment regimens. One of the restricting factors in clinical application of PET technology is the limited availability of radioligands with affinity to specific targets of interest. Given the short half-life of the most popular positron emitter currently used ((18)F; approximately 120 min.) extremely rapid and efficient radiochemistry methods are needed to ensure required compounds are prepared and purified for administration within the 2-3 half life practical limit. Recent efforts to combine microwave mediated synthesis with advanced catalysis in the synthesis of specific categories of AD imaging agents will be presented.

CYP2D6-mediated catalysis of tamoxifen aromatic hydroxylation with an NIH shift: similar hydroxylation mechanism in chicken, rat and human liver microsomes.

1. 4-Tritiated-tamoxifen (4-[(3)H]-tamoxifen) and 4-deuterated-tamoxifen (4-[(2)H]-tamoxifen) were synthesized to examine tamoxifen metabolism by human P450 (CYP) forms and also for the possibility of determining tamoxifen-4-hydroxylation in humans in vivo. 2. Liver microsomes from several species and cDNA-expressed human P450s were incubated with 4-[(3)H]-tamoxifen and the reaction monitored by assaying 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OH-tam) and (3)H(2)O formed. However, tamoxifen-4-hydroxylation did not generate stoichiometric amounts of (3)H(2)O and the expected unlabelled 4-OH-tam but instead yielded radiolabelled 4-OH-tam, apparently from [(3)H]-migration to the ortho-position, referred to as the NIH shift. 3. CYP2D6 was the prime catalyst of tam-4-hydroxylation, whereas CYP2B6, 2C9 and 2C19 yielded only low levels of 4-OH-tam; nevertheless, in all cases the 4-OH-tam was radioactive, apparently resulting from reactions involving an NIH shift. 4. Chicken liver microsomal preparation, being catalytically the most active in tamoxifen-4-hydroxylation, was incubated with deuterated tamoxifen (4-[(2)H]-tamoxifen) in order to determine whether an NIH shift occurs. Ion-trap mass-spectrometry of the HPLC-purified 4-OH-tam, from that incubation, indicated about 60% of [(2)H]-retention in 4-OH-tam, signifying an NIH shift. These findings indicate that the aromatic hydroxylation of tamoxifen does not entail hydroxyl insertion with an Sn2-displacement of hydrogen or a hydrogen isotope ((2)H or (3)H), but apparently involves epoxidation followed by migration of the (3)H, (2)H or (1)H to the ortho-position, and dissociation of the (1)H in preference to (3)H or (2)H, i.e. retention of the hydrogen isotope appears to be related to the bond strengths: C-(3)H>C-(2)H>C-(1)H.

Structure of HIV-2 reverse transcriptase at 2.35-A resolution and the mechanism of resistance to non-nucleoside inhibitors.

The HIV-2 serotype of HIV is a cause of disease in parts of the West African population, and there is evidence for its spread to Europe and Asia. HIV-2 reverse transcriptase (RT) demonstrates an intrinsic resistance to non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTIs), one of two classes of anti-AIDS drugs that target the viral RT. We report the crystal structure of HIV-2 RT to 2.35 A resolution, which reveals molecular details of the resistance to NNRTIs. HIV-2 RT has a similar overall fold to HIV-1 RT but has structural differences within the "NNRTI pocket" at both conserved and nonconserved residues. The structure points to the role of sequence differences that can give rise to unfavorable inhibitor contacts or destabilization of part of the binding pocket at positions 101, 106, 138, 181, 188, and 190. We also present evidence that the conformation of Ile-181 compared with the HIV-1 Tyr-181 could be a significant contributory factor to this inherent drug resistance of HIV-2 to NNRTIs. The availability of a refined structure of HIV-2 RT will provide a stimulus for the structure-based design of novel non-nucleoside inhibitors that could be used against HIV-2 infection.

Designed enediyne antitumor agents.

The enediynes remain among the most potent antitumoral agents to have been discovered in the past decade. Following prodrug activation, the enediynes undergo cycloaromatization reactions resulting in formation of highly reactive diradical intermediates. The diradical species engage in atom-transfer chemistry to produce neutral arene products, in the process inducing damage to key macromolecules. Several of the naturally occurring members of the enediyne family of antibiotics have entered clinical trials, and this has prompted the design of synthetic enediynes, where the enediyne lquo;warheadrquo; is conjugated to a targeted delivery vehicle. This review will describe ecent efforts using chemical synthesis to identify and improve the target specificity of designed enediynes, and to establish efficient methods to achieve prodrug activation. Finally, new horizons will be examined, including the use of post-cycloaromatized enediyne templates as recognition elements for unique DNA and RNA microenvironments.

Butalene and related compounds: aromatic or antiaromatic?

Density functional theory (DFT) has been used to study the first three members of the condensed cyclobutadienoid series, butalene (3), bicyclobutadienylene (12), and dicyclobutenobutalene (20). The first is planar and is judged "aromatic" by comparisons with suitable models using both energetic and magnetic criteria. The second is nonplanar, and not aromatic, but not so antiaromatic as cyclobutadiene (11). The third is slightly more antiaromatic and best viewed as a butalene fused to two cyclobutadiene rings; its properties are the sum of aromatic and antiaromatic components, like benzocyclobutadiene. Ring-opening transition states for both 3 and 12 have been located, and these are conrotatorily twisted. The ring-opening barrier for 12 is more than twice that for 3. Ring-opening of 20 involves ring inversion as the only barrier.

Electronic control of the Bergman cyclization: the remarkable role of vinyl substitution.

We report an ab initio study of the effect of vinyl substitution on the cycloaromatization of 3-ene-1,5-diynes (the Bergman cyclization). The majority of the calculations were conducted by using the BLYP version of Density Functional Theory, and higher level Brueckner orbital calculations were used for a few key compounds. In all, 46 enediynes, 44 cyclization transition states, 39 singlet p-benzynes, and 28 related triplet p-benzynes were studied, including simple vinyl-substituted and annulated examples. The data indicate that strongly electron-withdrawing groups increase the cyclization barrier, while sigma-donating groups decrease it; pi conjugation, especially donation, has little effect. Most annulations, including those involving heteroaromatic rings, lower the barrier slightly (6 MR) or raise it slightly (5 MR). Larger effects are seen for smaller rings or charged rings. Some previously observed apparent rate inhibitions are seen to be due to reversibility or forward reactivity of the intermediate p-benzynes, which are thereby inhibited from the H abstraction step that completes cycloaromatization. H abstraction reactivity, as judged from the p-benzyne singlet-triplet energy gap and from isodesmic equations, is also examined. Unexpected behavior is predicted for some heteroaromatic systems. Finally, we anticipate how these results may be applied to the design of prodrug candidates for subsequent biological application.

Quinone isomers of the WS-5995 antibiotics: synthetic antitumor agents that inhibit macromolecule synthesis, block nucleoside transport, induce DNA fragmentation, and decrease the growth and viability of L1210 leukemic cells more effectively than ellagic acid and genistein in vitro.

Antibiotic WS-5995A (code name J4) and two of its synthetic analogs, o-quinone J1 and model p-quinone J7, which show some structural similarity with both ellagic acid (EA) and genistein (GEN), were compared for their antileukemic activity in L1210 cells in vitro. Overall, J4 is more cytostatic and cytotoxic than J1 and J7, suggesting that methyl and methoxy substitutions, a p-quinone moiety, and a hydrogen bonding phenolic group may enhance the antitumor potential of these naphthoquinone lactones, which are all more potent than EA and GEN. For instance, the lead compound J4 inhibits tumor cell proliferation and viability at day 4 (IC(50): 0.24--0.65 microM) more effectively than EA (IC(50): 5--6 microM) and GEN (IC(50): 7 microM). Since J4 does not increase but rather decreases the mitotic index of L1210 cells at 24 h, it is not an antitubulin drug but might arrest early stages of cell cycle progression like EA and GEN. A 1.5- to 3-h pretreatment with J4 is sufficient to inhibit the rates of DNA, RNA and protein syntheses (IC(50): 2.0--2.5 microM) determined over 30- to 60-min periods of pulse-labeling in L1210 cells in vitro, whereas EA (IC(50): 20-130 microM) and GEN (IC(50): 40--115 microM) are less effective against macromolecule synthesis. In contrast to 156 microM EA, which is inactive, a 15-min pretreatment with 10--25 microM J4 has the advantage of also inhibiting the cellular transport of both purine and pyrimidine nucleosides over a 30 s period in vitro, an effect which can be mimicked by 156 microM GEN. Hence, the WS-5995 analogs and GEN may prevent the incorporation of [(3)H]adenosine and [(3)H]thymidine into DNA because they rapidly block the uptake of these nucleosides by the tumor cells. After 24 h, the concentration-dependent induction of DNA cleavage by J4 peaks at 10 microM and declines at 25 microM, whereas EA and GEN are ineffective at 10 microM but maximally stimulate DNA cleavage at 62.5 microM. Like EA and GEN, the mechanism by which J4 induces DNA fragmentation is inhibited by actinomycin D, cycloheximide, benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethyl ketone, N-tosyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone and ZnSO(4), suggesting that J4 triggers apoptosis by caspase and endonuclease activation. Because they are more potent than EA and GEN, and affect both nucleoside transport and DNA cleavage, the WS-5995 antitumor antibiotics might be valuable in polychemotherapy to potentiate the action of antimetabolites and sensitize multidrug-resistant tumor cells.

ENCORE: the effect of nutrient enrichment on coral reefs. Synthesis of results and conclusions.

Coral reef degradation resulting from nutrient enrichment of coastal waters is of increasing global concern. Although effects of nutrients on coral reef organisms have been demonstrated in the laboratory, there is little direct evidence of nutrient effects on coral reef biota in situ. The ENCORE experiment investigated responses of coral reef organisms and processes to controlled additions of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (N) and/or phosphorus (P) on an offshore reef (One Tree Island) at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. A multi-disciplinary team assessed a variety of factors focusing on nutrient dynamics and biotic responses. A controlled and replicated experiment was conducted over two years using twelve small patch reefs ponded at low tide by a coral rim. Treatments included three control reefs (no nutrient addition) and three + N reefs (NH4Cl added), three + P reefs (KH2PO4 added), and three + N + P reefs. Nutrients were added as pulses at each low tide (ca twice per day) by remotely operated units. There were two phases of nutrient additions. During the initial, low-loading phase of the experiment nutrient pulses (mean dose = 11.5 microM NH4+; 2.3 microM PO4(-3)) rapidly declined, reaching near-background levels (mean = 0.9 microM NH4+; 0.5 microM PO4(-3)) within 2-3 h. A variety of biotic processes, assessed over a year during this initial nutrient loading phase, were not significantly affected, with the exception of coral reproduction, which was affected in all nutrient treatments. In Acropora longicyathus and A. aspera, fewer successfully developed embryos were formed, and in A. longicyathus fertilization rates and lipid levels decreased. In the second, high-loading, phase of ENCORE an increased nutrient dosage (mean dose = 36.2 microM NH4+; 5.1 microM PO4(-3)) declining to means of 11.3 microM NH4+ and 2.4 microM PO4(-3) at the end of low tide) was used for a further year, and a variety of significant biotic responses occurred. Encrusting algae incorporated virtually none of the added nutrients. Organisms containing endosymbiotic zooxanthellae (corals and giant clams) assimilated dissolved nutrients rapidly and were responsive to added nutrients. Coral mortality, not detected during the initial low-loading phase, became evident with increased nutrient dosage, particularly in Pocillopora damicornis. Nitrogen additions stunted coral growth, and phosphorus additions had a variable effect. Coral calcification rate and linear extension increased in the presence of added phosphorus but skeletal density was reduced, making corals more susceptible to breakage. Settlement of all coral larvae was reduced in nitrogen treatments, yet settlement of larvae from brooded species was enhanced in phosphorus treatments. Recruitment of stomatopods, benthic crustaceans living in coral rubble, was reduced in nitrogen and nitrogen plus phosphorus treatments. Grazing rates and reproductive effort of various fish species were not affected by the nutrient treatments. Microbial nitrogen transformations in sediments were responsive to nutrient loading with nitrogen fixation significantly increased in phosphorus treatments and denitrification increased in all treatments to which nitrogen had been added. Rates of bioerosion and grazing showed no significant effects of added nutrients. ENCORE has shown that reef organisms and processes investigated in situ were impacted by elevated nutrients. Impacts were dependent on dose level, whether nitrogen and/or phosphorus were elevated and were often species-specific. The impacts were generally sub-lethal and subtle and the treated reefs at the end of the experiment were visually similar to control reefs. Rapid nutrient uptake indicates that nutrient concentrations alone are not adequate to assess nutrient condition of reefs. Sensitive and quantifiable biological indicators need to be developed for coral reef ecosystems. The potential bioindicators identified in ENCORE should be tested in future research on coral reef/nutrient interactions. Synergistic and cumulative effects of elevated nutrients and other environmental parameters, comparative studies of intact vs. disturbed reefs, offshore vs. inshore reefs, or the ability of a nutrient-stressed reef to respond to natural disturbances require elucidation. An expanded understanding of coral reef responses to anthropogenic impacts is necessary, particularly regarding the subtle, sub-lethal effects detected in the ENCORE studies.

Target-directed enediynes: designed estramycins.

The goal of selective targeting of enediyne cytotoxins has been investigated using estrogenic delivery vehicles. A series of estrogen-enediyne conjugates were assembled, and affinity for human estrogen receptor [hERalpha] was determined. The most promising candidate induced receptor degradation following Bergman cycloaromatization and caused inhibition of estrogen-induced transcription in T47-D human breast cancer cells.

Assessing infant health promotion: a cross-cultural comparison.

The purpose of this cross-cultural, correlational study was to evaluate two popular clinical/research assessment tools, the NCAST Teaching Scale and the Home Observation Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory, as measures of infant health promotion behaviors for low-income, foreign-born Hispanic mothers in the United States. Based on the assumption that both measures tap universal attributes of the mother-infant relationship, it was hypothesized that maternal performance for the study group and a comparison group of U.S.-born, low-income mothers would be similar. Comparable performance on the NCAST Teaching Scale included a full range of scores, including the capacity to identify mothers most in need of clinical intervention. Study fundings supported the clinical use of this assessment scale with mothers represented by the study sample. Consistently lower scores by the foreign-born Hispanic mothers on the HOME Inventory led to the conclusion that the instrument may not tap cultural universals in the mother-infant relationship.

Annulation strategies for benzo[b]fluorene synthesis: efficient routes to the kinafluorenone and WS-5995 antibiotics.

Intramolecular palladium-mediated arylation approaches to benzo[b]fluorenes have been investigated. The methodology has been applied in a short synthesis of tri-O-methylkinafluorenone, providing an effective alternative to Friedel-Crafts-based approaches. During the course of this work, an acid-promoted quinolactonization of naphthoquinones was also developed, providing direct access to either ortho or para isomers as desired. Application of this methodology in syntheses of the antibiotics WS-5995A, WS-5995C, and functional analogues was demonstrated, and antitumoral activity of this class was determined.

Towards enzyme activated antiprostatic agents.

A prodrug conjugate designed to undergo activation by enzymatic prostate specific antigen has been synthesized. The prodrug system undergoes activation with PSA or alpha-chymotrypsin, and shows selective cytotoxicity in a PSA secreting cell line.

Protein-degrading enediynes: library screening of Bergman cycloaromatization products.

[structure: see text] A screening method based on Bergman cycloaromatization products was applied to a compact library of estrogenic-enediyne hybrids. An enediyne candidate identified from the screen was subsequently synthesized, and it induced temperature- and concentration-dependent degradation of human estrogen receptor alpha upon cycloaromatization.

Electronic control of the Bergman cycloaromatization: synthesis and chemistry of chloroenediynes.

[reaction: see text] A series of cyclic mono- and dichloroenediynes have been prepared using an intramolecular carbenoid coupling reaction. The halogen atom had a retardative effect on Bergman cycloaromatization in every case examined, and atom transfer chemistry was demonstrated, resulting in formation of adducts.