Molecular Tissue Responses to Mechanical Loading.

The intention of this special edition is to highlight the benefits of a holistic approach to computational and experimental approaches in the context of aiding the diagnosis and remediation of disease and injury, especially in neurological and connective tissues and organs [...].

Contrasting Local and Macroscopic Effects of Collagen Hydroxylation.

Collagen is heavily hydroxylated. Experiments show that proline hydroxylation is important to triple helix (monomer) stability, fibril assembly, and interaction of fibrils with other molecules. Nevertheless, experiments also show that even without hydroxylation, type I collagen does assemble into its native D-banded fibrillar structure. This raises two questions. Firstly, even though hydroxylation removal marginally affects macroscopic structure, how does such an extensive chemical change, which is expected to substantially reduce hydrogen bonding capacity, affect local structure? Secondly, how does such a chemical perturbation, which is expected to substantially decrease electrostatic attraction between monomers, affect collagen's mechanical properties? To address these issues, we conduct a benchmarked molecular dynamics study of rat type I fibrils in the presence and absence of hydroxylation. Our simulations reproduce the experimental observation that hydroxylation removal has a minimal effect on collagen's D-band length. We also find that the gap-overlap ratio, monomer width and monomer length are minimally affected. Surprisingly, we find that de-hydroxylation also has a minor effect on the fibril's Young's modulus, and elastic stress build up is also accompanied by tightening of triple-helix windings. In terms of local structure, de-hydroxylation does result in a substantial drop (23%) in inter-monomer hydrogen bonding. However, at the same time, the local structures and inter-monomer hydrogen bonding networks of non-hydroxylated amino acids are also affected. It seems that it is this intrinsic plasticity in inter-monomer interactions that preclude fibrils from undergoing any large changes in macroscopic properties. Nevertheless, changes in local structure can be expected to directly impact collagen's interaction with extra-cellular matrix proteins. In general, this study highlights a key challenge in tissue engineering and medicine related to mapping collagen chemistry to macroscopic properties but suggests a path forward to address it using molecular dynamics simulations.

Intermolecular channels direct crystal orientation in mineralized collagen.

The mineralized collagen fibril is the basic building block of bone, and is commonly pictured as a parallel array of ultrathin carbonated hydroxyapatite (HAp) platelets distributed throughout the collagen. This orientation is often attributed to an epitaxial relationship between the HAp and collagen molecules inside 2D voids within the fibril. Although recent studies have questioned this model, the structural relationship between the collagen matrix and HAp, and the mechanisms by which collagen directs mineralization remain unclear. Here, we use XRD to reveal that the voids in the collagen are in fact cylindrical pores with diameters of ~2 nm, while electron microscopy shows that the HAp crystals in bone are only uniaxially oriented with respect to the collagen. From in vitro mineralization studies with HAp, CaCO3 and γ-FeOOH we conclude that confinement within these pores, together with the anisotropic growth of HAp, dictates the orientation of HAp crystals within the collagen fibril.

Functional Grading of a Transversely Isotropic Hyperelastic Model with Applications in Modeling Tricuspid and Mitral Valve Transition Regions.

Surgical simulators and injury-prediction human models require a combination of representative tissue geometry and accurate tissue material properties to predict realistic tool-tissue interaction forces and injury mechanisms, respectively. While biological tissues have been individually characterized, the transition regions between tissues have received limited research attention, potentially resulting in inaccuracies within simulations. In this work, an approach to characterize the transition regions in transversely isotropic (TI) soft tissues using functionally graded material (FGM) modeling is presented. The effect of nonlinearities and multi-regime nature of the TI model on the functional grading process is discussed. The proposed approach has been implemented to characterize the transition regions in the leaflet (LL), chordae tendinae (CT) and the papillary muscle (PM) of porcine tricuspid valve (TV) and mitral valve (MV). The FGM model is informed using high resolution morphological measurements of the collagen fiber orientation and tissue composition in the transition regions, and deformation characteristics predicted by the FGM model are numerically validated to experimental data using X-ray diffraction imaging. The results indicate feasibility of using the FGM approach in modeling soft-tissue transitions and has implications in improving physical representation of tissue deformation throughout the body using a scalable version of the proposed approach.

Reliable inkjet printing of chondrocytes and MSCs using reservoir agitation.

Drop-on-demand (DoD) inkjet printing has been explored for a range of applications, including those to selectively deposit cellular material, due to the high accuracy and scalability of such systems when compared with alternative bioprinting techniques. Despite this, there remain considerable limitations when handling cell suspensions due to the agglomeration and sedimentation of cells during printing, leading to a deterioration in jetting performance. The objective of this work was to design and assess the effectiveness of a custom agitation system to maintain cellular dispersion within the ink reservoir during printing. The cell printing performance of an inkjet printer was assessed with and without the use of a custom agitation system, with biological characterisation performed to characterise the impact of the agitator on cellular viability and function. Cell printing performance was retained over a 2 h printing period when incorporating an agitated reservoir, with a gradual reduction in performance observed under a non-agitated configuration. Cell assays indicated that the agitation process did not significantly affect the viability, metabolic activity or morphology of the mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) or chondrocyte cell types. This study therefore provides a new methodology to increase process reliability within DoD printing platforms when jetting cellularised material.

Ultrastructural Location and Interactions of the Immunoglobulin Receptor Binding Sequence within Fibrillar Type I Collagen.

Collagen type I is a major constituent of animal bodies. It is found in large quantities in tendon, bone, skin, cartilage, blood vessels, bronchi, and the lung interstitium. It is also produced and accumulates in large amounts in response to certain inflammations such as lung fibrosis. Our understanding of the molecular organization of fibrillar collagen and cellular interaction motifs, such as those involved with immune-associated molecules, continues to be refined. In this study, antibodies raised against type I collagen were used to label intact D-periodic type I collagen fibrils and observed with atomic force microscopy (AFM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and immunolabeling positions were observed with both methods. The antibodies bind close to the C-terminal telopeptide which verifies the location and accessibility of both the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I (MHCI) binding domain and C-terminal telopeptide on the outside of the collagen fibril. The close proximity of the C-telopeptide and the MHC1 domain of type I collagen to fibronectin, discoidin domain receptor (DDR), and collagenase cleavage domains likely facilitate the interaction of ligands and receptors related to cellular immunity and the collagen-based Extracellular Matrix.

Advanced Methodology and Preliminary Measurements of Molecular and Mechanical Properties of Heart Valves under Dynamic Strain.

Mammalian heart valves are soft tissue assemblies with multi-scale material properties. This is because they are constructs comprising both muscle and non-contractile extracellular matrix proteins (such as collagens and proteoglycans) and transition regions where one form of tissue structure becomes another, significantly different form. The leaflets of the mitral and tricuspid valves are connected to chordae tendinae which, in turn, bind through papillary muscles to the cardiac wall of the ventricle. The transition regions between these tissue subsets are complex and diffuse. Their material composition and mechanical properties have not been previously described with both micro and nanoscopic data recorded simultaneously, as reported here. Annotating the mechanical characteristics of these tissue transitions will be of great value in developing novel implants, improving the state of the surgical simulators and advancing robot-assisted surgery. We present here developments in multi-scale methodology that produce data that can relate mechanical properties to molecular structure using scanning X-ray diffraction. We correlate these data to corresponding tissue level (macro and microscopic) stress and strain, with particular emphasis on the transition regions and present analyses to indicate points of possible failure in these tissues.

Collagen Structure-Function Mapping Informs Applications for Regenerative Medicine.

Type I collagen, the predominant protein of vertebrates, assembles into fibrils that orchestrate the form and function of bone, tendon, skin, and other tissues. Collagen plays roles in hemostasis, wound healing, angiogenesis, and biomineralization, and its dysfunction contributes to fibrosis, atherosclerosis, cancer metastasis, and brittle bone disease. To elucidate the type I collagen structure-function relationship, we constructed a type I collagen fibril interactome, including its functional sites and disease-associated mutations. When projected onto an X-ray diffraction model of the native collagen microfibril, data revealed a matrix interaction domain that assumes structural roles including collagen assembly, crosslinking, proteoglycan (PG) binding, and mineralization, and the cell interaction domain supporting dynamic aspects of collagen biology such as hemostasis, tissue remodeling, and cell adhesion. Our type III collagen interactome corroborates this model. We propose that in quiescent tissues, the fibril projects a structural face; however, tissue injury releases blood into the collagenous stroma, triggering exposure of the fibrils' cell and ligand binding sites crucial for tissue remodeling and regeneration. Applications of our research include discovery of anti-fibrotic antibodies and elucidating their interactions with collagen, and using insights from our angiogenesis studies and collagen structure-function model to inform the design of super-angiogenic collagens and collagen mimetics.

A structural prospective for collagen receptors such as DDR and their binding of the collagen fibril.

The structure of the collagen fibril surface directly effects and possibly assists the management of collagen receptor interactions. An important class of collagen receptors, the receptor tyrosine kinases of the Discoidin Domain Receptor family (DDR1 and DDR2), are differentially activated by specific collagen types and play important roles in cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and matrix remodeling. This review discusses their structure and function as it pertains directly to the fibrillar collagen structure with which they interact far more readily than they do with isolated molecular collagen. This prospective provides further insight into the mechanisms of activation and rational cellular control of this important class of receptors while also providing a comparison of DDR-collagen interactions with other receptors such as integrin and GPVI. When improperly regulated, DDR activation can lead to abnormal cellular proliferation activities such as in cancer. Hence how and when the DDRs associate with the major basis of mammalian tissue infrastructure, fibrillar collagen, should be of keen interest.

Molecular and ultrastructural studies of a fibrillar collagen from octocoral (Cnidaria).

We report here the biochemical, molecular and ultrastructural features of a unique organization of fibrillar collagen extracted from the octocoral Sarcophyton ehrenbergi Collagen, the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom, is often defined as a structural component of extracellular matrices in metazoans. In the present study, collagen fibers were extracted from the mesenteries of S. ehrenbergi polyps. These fibers are organized as filaments and further compacted as coiled fibers. The fibers are uniquely long, reaching an unprecedented length of tens of centimeters. The diameter of these fibers is 9±0.37 µm. The amino acid content of these fibers was identified using chromatography and revealed close similarity in content to mammalian type I and II collagens. The ultrastructural organization of the fibers was characterized by means of high-resolution microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The fibers are composed of fibrils and fibril bundles in the range of 15 to 35 nm. These data indicate a fibrillar collagen possessing structural aspects of both types I and II collagen, a highly interesting and newly described form of fibrillar collagen organization.

Nanomechanics of Type I Collagen.

Type I collagen is the predominant collagen in mature tendons and ligaments, where it gives them their load-bearing mechanical properties. Fibrils of type I collagen are formed by the packing of polypeptide triple helices. Higher-order structures like fibril bundles and fibers are assembled from fibrils in the presence of other collagenous molecules and noncollagenous molecules. Curiously, however, experiments show that fibrils/fibril bundles are less resistant to axial stress compared to their constituent triple helices-the Young's moduli of fibrils/fibril bundles are an order-of-magnitude smaller than the Young's moduli of triple helices. Given the sensitivity of the Young's moduli of triple helices to solvation environment, a plausible explanation is that the packing of triple helices into fibrils perhaps reduces the Young's modulus of an individual triple helix, which results in fibrils having smaller Young's moduli. We find, however, from molecular dynamics and accelerated conformational sampling simulations that the Young's modulus of the buried core of the fibril is of the same order as that of a triple helix in aqueous phase. These simulations, therefore, suggest that the lower Young's moduli of fibrils/fibril bundles cannot be attributed to the specific packing of triple helices in the fibril core. It is not the fibril core that yields initially to axial stress. Rather, it must be the portion of the fibril exposed to the solvent and/or the fibril-fibril interface that bears the initial strain. Overall, this work provides estimates of Young's moduli and persistence lengths at two levels of collagen's structural assembly, which are necessary to quantitatively investigate the response of various biological factors on collagen mechanics, including congenital mutations, posttranslational modifications and ligand binding, and also engineer new collagen-based materials.

Measurement of Elastic Modulus of Collagen Type I Single Fiber.

Collagen fibers are the main components of the extra cellular matrix and the primary contributors to the mechanical properties of tissues. Here we report a novel approach to measure the longitudinal component of the elastic moduli of biological fibers under conditions close to those found in vivo and apply it to type I collagen from rat tail tendon. This approach combines optical tweezers, atomic force microscopy, and exploits Euler-Bernoulli elasticity theory for data analysis. This approach also avoids drying for measurements or visualization, since samples are freshly extracted. Importantly, strains are kept below 0.5%, which appear consistent with the linear elastic regime. We find, surprisingly, that the longitudinal elastic modulus of type I collagen cannot be represented by a single quantity but rather is a distribution that is broader than the uncertainty of our experimental technique. The longitudinal component of the single-fiber elastic modulus is between 100 MPa and 360 MPa for samples extracted from different rats and/or different parts of a single tail. Variations are also observed in the fibril-bundle/fibril diameter with an average of 325±40 nm. Since bending forces depend on the diameter to the fourth power, this variation in diameter is important for estimating the range of elastic moduli. The remaining variations in the modulus may be due to differences in composition of the fibril-bundles, or the extent of the proteoglycans constituting fibril-bundles, or that some single fibrils may be of fibril-bundle size.

Effect of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on the simulated D-band length of type I collagen.

A signature feature of collagen is its axial periodicity visible in TEM as alternating dark and light bands. In mature, type I collagen, this repeating unit, D, is 67 nm long. This periodicity reflects an underlying packing of constituent triple-helix polypeptide monomers wherein the dark bands represent gaps between axially adjacent monomers. This organization is visible distinctly in the microfibrillar model of collagen obtained from fiber diffraction. However, to date, no atomistic simulations of this diffraction model under zero-stress conditions have reported a preservation of this structural feature. Such a demonstration is important as it provides the baseline to infer response functions of physiological stimuli. In contrast, simulations predict a considerable shrinkage of the D-band (11-19%). Here we evaluate systemically the effect of several factors on D-band shrinkage. Using force fields employed in previous studies we find that irrespective of the temperature/pressure coupling algorithms, assumed salt concentration or hydration level, and whether or not the monomers are cross-linked, the D-band shrinks considerably. This shrinkage is associated with the bending and widening of individual monomers, but employing a force field whose backbone dihedral energy landscape matches more closely with our computed CCSD(T) values produces a small D-band shrinkage of < 3%. Since this force field also performs better against other experimental data, it appears that the large shrinkage observed in earlier simulations is a force-field artifact. The residual shrinkage could be due to the absence of certain atomic-level details, such as glycosylation sites, for which we do not yet have suitable data.

Variation in the helical structure of native collagen.

The structure of collagen has been a matter of curiosity, investigation, and debate for the better part of a century. There has been a particularly productive period recently, during which much progress has been made in better describing all aspects of collagen structure. However, there remain some questions regarding its helical symmetry and its persistence within the triple-helix. Previous considerations of this symmetry have sometimes confused the picture by not fully recognizing that collagen structure is a highly complex and large hierarchical entity, and this affects and is effected by the super-coiled molecules that make it. Nevertheless, the symmetry question is not trite, but of some significance as it relates to extracellular matrix organization and cellular integration. The correlation between helical structure in the context of the molecular packing arrangement determines which parts of the amino acid sequence of the collagen fibril are buried or accessible to the extracellular matrix or the cell. In this study, we concentrate primarily on the triple-helical structure of fibrillar collagens I and II, the two most predominant types. By comparing X-ray diffraction data collected from type I and type II containing tissues, we point to evidence for a range of triple-helical symmetries being extant in the molecules native environment. The possible significance of helical instability, local helix dissociation and molecular packing of the triple-helices is discussed in the context of collagen's supramolecular organization, all of which must affect the symmetry of the collagen triple-helix.

Non-enzymatic decomposition of collagen fibers by a biglycan antibody and a plausible mechanism for rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune inflammatory and destructive joint disorder that affects tens of millions of people worldwide. Normal healthy joints maintain a balance between the synthesis of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules and the proteolytic degradation of damaged ones. In the case of RA, this balance is shifted toward matrix destruction due to increased production of cleavage enzymes and the presence of (autoimmune) immunoglobulins resulting from an inflammation induced immune response. Herein we demonstrate that a polyclonal antibody against the proteoglycan biglycan (BG) causes tissue destruction that may be analogous to that of RA affected tissues. The effect of the antibody is more potent than harsh chemical and/or enzymatic treatments designed to mimic arthritis-like fibril de-polymerization. In RA cases, the immune response to inflammation causes synovial fibroblasts, monocytes and macrophages to produce cytokines and secrete matrix remodeling enzymes, whereas B cells are stimulated to produce immunoglobulins. The specific antigen that causes the RA immune response has not yet been identified, although possible candidates have been proposed, including collagen types I and II, and proteoglycans (PG's) such as biglycan. We speculate that the initiation of RA associated tissue destruction in vivo may involve a similar non-enzymatic decomposition of collagen fibrils via the immunoglobulins themselves that we observe here ex vivo.

The dentin organic matrix - limitations of restorative dentistry hidden on the nanometer scale.

The prevention and treatment of dental caries are major challenges occurring in dentistry. The foundations for modern management of this dental disease, estimated to affect 90% of adults in Western countries, rest upon the dependence of ultrafine interactions between synthetic polymeric biomaterials and nanostructured supramolecular assemblies that compose the tooth organic substrate. Research has shown, however, that this interaction imposes less than desirable long-term prospects for current resin-based dental restorations. Here we review progress in the identification of the nanostructural organization of the organic matrix of dentin, the largest component of the tooth structure, and highlight aspects relevant to understating the interaction of restorative biomaterials with the dentin substrate. We offer novel insights into the influence of the hierarchically assembled supramolecular structure of dentin collagen fibrils and their structural dependence on water molecules. Secondly, we review recent evidence for the participation of proteoglycans in composing the dentin organic network. Finally, we discuss the relation of these complexly assembled nanostructures with the protease degradative processes driving the low durability of current resin-based dental restorations. We argue in favour of the structural limitations that these complexly organized and inherently hydrated organic structures may impose on the clinical prospects of current hydrophobic and hydrolyzable dental polymers that establish ultrafine contact with the tooth substrate.

X-ray diffraction study of nanocrystalline and amorphous structure within major and minor ampullate dragline spider silks.

Synchrotron X-ray micro-diffraction experiments were carried out on Nephila clavipes (NC) and Argiope aurantia (AA) major (MA) and minor ampullate (MiA) fibers that make up dragline spider silk. The diffraction patterns show a semi-crystalline structure with ß-poly(l-alanine) nanocrystallites embedded in a partially oriented amorphous matrix. A superlattice reflection 'S' diffraction ring is observed, which corresponds to a crystalline component larger in size and is poorly oriented, when compared to the ß-poly(l-alanine) nanocrystallites that are commonly observed in dragline spider silks. Crystallite size, crystallinity and orientation about the fiber axis have been determined from the wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) patterns. In both NC and AA, the MiA silks are found to be more highly crystalline, when compared with the corresponding MA silks. Detailed analysis on the amorphous matrix shows considerable differences in the degree of order of the oriented amorphous component between the different silks studied and may play a crucial role in determining the mechanical properties of the silks.

Dinosaur peptides suggest mechanisms of protein survival.

Eleven collagen peptide sequences recovered from chemical extracts of dinosaur bones were mapped onto molecular models of the vertebrate collagen fibril derived from extant taxa. The dinosaur peptides localized to fibril regions protected by the close packing of collagen molecules, and contained few acidic amino acids. Four peptides mapped to collagen regions crucial for cell-collagen interactions and tissue development. Dinosaur peptides were not represented in more exposed parts of the collagen fibril or regions mediating intermolecular cross-linking. Thus functionally significant regions of collagen fibrils that are physically shielded within the fibril may be preferentially preserved in fossils. These results show empirically that structure-function relationships at the molecular level could contribute to selective preservation in fossilized vertebrate remains across geological time, suggest a 'preservation motif', and bolster current concepts linking collagen structure to biological function. This non-random distribution supports the hypothesis that the peptides are produced by the extinct organisms and suggests a chemical mechanism for survival.

The Japanese mutant Aß (ΔE22-Aß(1-39)) forms fibrils instantaneously, with low-thioflavin T fluorescence: seeding of wild-type Aß(1-40) into atypical fibrils by ΔE22-Aß(1-39).

The ΔE693 (Japanese) mutation of the ß-amyloid precursor protein leads to production of ΔE22-Aß peptides such as ΔE22-Aß(1-39). Despite reports that these peptides do not form fibrils, here we show that, on the contrary, the peptide forms fibrils essentially instantaneously. The fibrils are typical amyloid fibrils in all respects except that they cause only low levels of thioflavin T (ThT) fluorescence, which, however, develops with no lag phase. The fibrils bind ThT, but with a lower affinity and a smaller number of binding sites than wild-type (WT) Aß(1-40). Fluorescence depolarization confirms extremely rapid aggregation of ΔE22-Aß(1-39). Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) indicates very low concentrations of soluble monomer and oligomer, but only in the presence of some organic solvent, e.g., 2% (v/v) DMSO. The critical concentration is approximately 1 order of magnitude lower for ΔE22-Aß(1-39) than for WT Aß(1-40). Several lines of evidence point to an altered structure for ΔE22-Aß(1-39) compared to that of WT Aß(1-40) fibrils. In addition to differences in ThT binding and fluorescence, PITHIRDS-CT solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements of ΔE22-Aß(1-39) are not compatible with the parallel in-register ß-sheet generally observed for WT Aß(1-40) fibrils. X-ray fibril diffraction showed different D spacings: 4.7 and 10.4 Å for WT Aß(1-40) and 4.7 and 9.6 Å for ΔE22-Aß(1-39). Equimolar mixtures of ΔE22-Aß(1-39) and WT Aß(1-40) also produced fibrils extremely rapidly, and by the criteria of ThT fluorescence and electron microscopic appearance, they were the same as fibrils made from pure ΔE22-Aß(1-39). X-ray diffraction of fibrils formed from 1:1 molar mixtures of ΔE22-Aß(1-39) and WT Aß(1-40) showed the same D spacings as fibrils of the pure mutant peptide, not the wild-type peptide. These findings are consistent with extremely rapid nucleation by ΔE22-Aß(1-39), followed by fibril extension by WT Aß(1-40), and "conversion" of the wild-type peptide to a structure similar to that of the mutant peptide, in a manner reminiscent of the prion conversion phenomenon.

In situ D-periodic molecular structure of type II collagen.

Collagens are essential components of extracellular matrices in multicellular animals. Fibrillar type II collagen is the most prominent component of articular cartilage and other cartilage-like tissues such as notochord. Its in situ macromolecular and packing structures have not been fully characterized, but an understanding of these attributes may help reveal mechanisms of tissue assembly and degradation (as in osteo- and rheumatoid arthritis). In some tissues such as lamprey notochord, the collagen fibrillar organization is naturally crystalline and may be studied by x-ray diffraction. We used diffraction data from native and derivative notochord tissue samples to solve the axial, D-periodic structure of type II collagen via multiple isomorphous replacement. The electron density maps and heavy atom data revealed the conformation of the nonhelical telopeptides and the overall D-periodic structure of collagen type II in native tissues, data that were further supported by structure prediction and transmission electron microscopy. These results help to explain the observed differences in collagen type I and type II fibrillar architecture and indicate the collagen type II cross-link organization, which is crucial for fibrillogenesis. Transmission electron microscopy data show the close relationship between lamprey and mammalian collagen fibrils, even though the respective larger scale tissue architecture differs.