Auts2 enhances neurogenesis and promotes expansion of the cerebral cortex.

INTRODUCTION: The AUTS2 gene is associated with various neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders and has been suggested to play a role in acquiring human-specific traits. Functional analyses of Auts2 knockout mice have focused on postmitotic neurons, and the reported phenotypes do not faithfully recapitulate the whole spectrum of AUTS2-related human diseases. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study is to assess the role of AUTS2 in the biology of neural progenitor cells, cortical neurogenesis and expansion; and understand how its deregulation leads to neurological disorders. METHODS: We screened the literature and conducted a time point analysis of AUTS2 expression during cortical development. We used in utero electroporation to acutely modulate the expression level of AUTS2 in the developing cerebral cortex in vivo, and thoroughly characterized cortical neurogenesis and morphogenesis using immunofluorescence, cell tracing and sorting, transcriptomic profiling, and gene ontology enrichment analyses. RESULTS: In addition to its expression in postmitotic neurons, we showed that AUTS2 is also expressed in neural progenitor cells at the peak of neurogenesis. Upregulation of AUTS2 dramatically altered the differentiation program and fate determination of cortical progenitors. Notably, it increased the number of basal progenitors and neurons and changed the expression of hundreds of genes, among which 444 have not been implicated in mouse brain development or function. CONCLUSION: The study provides evidence that AUTS2 is expressed in germinal zones and plays a key role in fate decision of neural progenitor cells with impact on corticogenesis. It also presents comprehensive lists of AUTS2 target genes thus advancing the molecular mechanisms underlying AUTS2-associated diseases and the evolutionary expansion of the cerebral cortex.

MKL/SRF and Bcl6 mutual transcriptional repression safeguards the fate and positioning of neocortical progenitor cells mediated by RhoA.

During embryogenesis, multiple intricate and intertwined cellular signaling pathways coordinate cell behavior. Their slightest alterations can have dramatic consequences for the cells and the organs they form. The transcriptional repressor Bcl6 was recently found as important for brain development. However, its regulation and integration with other signals is unknown. Using in vivo functional approaches combined with molecular mechanistic analysis, we identified a reciprocal regulatory loop between B cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl6) and the RhoA-regulated transcriptional complex megakaryoblastic leukemia/serum response factor (MKL/SRF). We show that Bcl6 physically interacts with MKL/SRF, resulting in a down-regulation of the transcriptional activity of both Bcl6 and MKL/SRF. This molecular cross-talk is essential for the control of proliferation, neurogenesis, and spatial positioning of neural progenitors. Overall, our data highlight a regulatory mechanism that controls neuronal production and neocortical development and reveal an MKL/SRF and Bcl6 interaction that may have broader implications in other physiological functions and in diseases.

DIAPH3 deficiency links microtubules to mitotic errors, defective neurogenesis, and brain dysfunction.

Diaphanous (DIAPH) three (DIAPH3) is a member of the formin proteins that have the capacity to nucleate and elongate actin filaments and, therefore, to remodel the cytoskeleton. DIAPH3 is essential for cytokinesis as its dysfunction impairs the contractile ring and produces multinucleated cells. Here, we report that DIAPH3 localizes at the centrosome during mitosis and regulates the assembly and bipolarity of the mitotic spindle. DIAPH3-deficient cells display disorganized cytoskeleton and multipolar spindles. DIAPH3 deficiency disrupts the expression and/or stability of several proteins including the kinetochore-associated protein SPAG5. DIAPH3 and SPAG5 have similar expression patterns in the developing brain and overlapping subcellular localization during mitosis. Knockdown of SPAG5 phenocopies DIAPH3 deficiency, whereas its overexpression rescues the DIAHP3 knockdown phenotype. Conditional inactivation of Diaph3 in mouse cerebral cortex profoundly disrupts neurogenesis, depleting cortical progenitors and neurons, leading to cortical malformation and autistic-like behavior. Our data uncover the uncharacterized functions of DIAPH3 and provide evidence that this protein belongs to a molecular toolbox that links microtubule dynamics during mitosis to aneuploidy, cell death, fate determination defects, and cortical malformation.

Reelin Functions, Mechanisms of Action and Signaling Pathways During Brain Development and Maturation.

During embryonic development and adulthood, Reelin exerts several important functions in the brain including the regulation of neuronal migration, dendritic growth and branching, dendritic spine formation, synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity. As a consequence, the Reelin signaling pathway has been associated with several human brain disorders such as lissencephaly, autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, mental retardation, Alzheimer's disease and epilepsy. Several elements of the signaling pathway are known. Core components, such as the Reelin receptors very low-density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR) and Apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2), Src family kinases Src and Fyn, and the intracellular adaptor Disabled-1 (Dab1), are common to most but not all Reelin functions. Other downstream effectors are, on the other hand, more specific to defined tasks. Reelin is a large extracellular protein, and some aspects of the signal are regulated by its processing into smaller fragments. Rather than being inhibitory, the processing at two major sites seems to be fulfilling important physiological functions. In this review, I describe the various cellular events regulated by Reelin and attempt to explain the current knowledge on the mechanisms of action. After discussing the shared and distinct elements of the Reelin signaling pathway involved in neuronal migration, dendritic growth, spine development and synaptic plasticity, I briefly outline the data revealing the importance of Reelin in human brain disorders.

Molecular mechanisms of cell polarity in a range of model systems and in migrating neurons.

Cell polarity is defined as the asymmetric distribution of cellular components along an axis. Most cells, from the simplest single-cell organisms to highly specialized mammalian cells, are polarized and use similar mechanisms to generate and maintain polarity. Cell polarity is important for cells to migrate, form tissues, and coordinate activities. During development of the mammalian cerebral cortex, cell polarity is essential for neurogenesis and for the migration of newborn but as-yet undifferentiated neurons. These oriented migrations include both the radial migration of excitatory projection neurons and the tangential migration of inhibitory interneurons. In this review, I will first describe the development of the cerebral cortex, as revealed at the cellular level. I will then define the core molecular mechanisms - the Par/Crb/Scrib polarity complexes, small GTPases, the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons, and phosphoinositides/PI3K signaling - that are required for asymmetric cell division, apico-basal and front-rear polarity in model systems, including C elegans zygote, Drosophila embryos and cultured mammalian cells. As I go through each core mechanism I will explain what is known about its importance in radial and tangential migration in the developing mammalian cerebral cortex.

Fbxo45 Binds SPRY Motifs in the Extracellular Domain of N-Cadherin and Regulates Neuron Migration during Brain Development.

Several events during the normal development of the mammalian neocortex depend on N-cadherin, including the radial migration of immature projection neurons into the cortical plate. Remarkably, radial migration requires the N-cadherin extracellular domain but not N-cadherin-dependent homophilic cell-cell adhesion, suggesting that other N-cadherin-binding proteins may be involved. We used proximity ligation and affinity purification proteomics to identify N-cadherin-binding proteins. Both screens detected MycBP2 and SPRY domain protein Fbxo45, two components of an intracellular E3 ubiquitin ligase. Fbxo45 appears to be secreted by a nonclassical mechanism, not involving a signal peptide and not requiring transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus. Fbxo45 binding requires N-cadherin SPRY motifs that are not involved in cell-cell adhesion. SPRY mutant N-cadherin does not support radial migration in vivo Radial migration was similarly inhibited when Fbxo45 expression was suppressed. The results suggest that projection neuron migration requires both Fbxo45 and the binding of Fbxo45 or another protein to SPRY motifs in the extracellular domain of N-cadherin.

N-cadherin-regulated FGFR ubiquitination and degradation control mammalian neocortical projection neuron migration.

The functions of FGF receptors (FGFRs) in early development of the cerebral cortex are well established. Their functions in the migration of neocortical projection neurons, however, are unclear. We have found that FGFRs regulate multipolar neuron orientation and the morphological change into bipolar cells necessary to enter the cortical plate. Mechanistically, our results suggest that FGFRs are activated by N-Cadherin. N-Cadherin cell-autonomously binds FGFRs and inhibits FGFR K27- and K29-linked polyubiquitination and lysosomal degradation. Accordingly, FGFRs accumulate and stimulate prolonged Erk1/2 phosphorylation. Neurons inhibited for Erk1/2 are stalled in the multipolar zone. Moreover, Reelin, a secreted protein regulating neuronal positioning, prevents FGFR degradation through N-Cadherin, causing Erk1/2 phosphorylation. These findings reveal novel functions for FGFRs in cortical projection neuron migration, suggest a physiological role for FGFR and N-Cadherin interaction in vivo and identify Reelin as an extracellular upstream regulator and Erk1/2 as downstream effectors of FGFRs during neuron migration.

Neuronal Polarity in the Embryonic Mammalian Cerebral Cortex.

The cerebral cortex is composed of billions of neurons that can grossly be subdivided into two broad classes: inhibitory GABAergic interneurons and excitatory glutamatergic neurons. The majority of cortical neurons in mammals are the excitatory type and they are the main focus of this review article. Like many of the cells in multicellular organisms, fully differentiated neurons are both morphologically and functionally polarized. However, they go through several changes in polarity before reaching this final mature differentiated state. Neurons are derived from polarized neuronal progenitor/stem cells and their commitment to neuronal fate is decided by cellular and molecular asymmetry during their last division in the neurogenic zone. They migrate from their birthplace using so-called multipolar migration, during which they switch direction of movement several times, and repolarize for bipolar migration when the axon is specified. Therefore, neurons have to break their previous symmetry, change their morphology and adequately respond to polarizing signals during migration in order to reach the correct position in the cortex and start making connections. Finally, the dendritic tree is elaborated and the axon/dendrite morphological polarity is set. Here we will describe the function, establishment and maintenance of polarity during the different developmental steps starting from neural stem cell (NSC) division, neuronal migration and axon specification at embryonic developmental stages.

Llgl1 Connects Cell Polarity with Cell-Cell Adhesion in Embryonic Neural Stem Cells.

Malformations of the cerebral cortex (MCCs) are devastating developmental disorders. We report here that mice with embryonic neural stem-cell-specific deletion of Llgl1 (Nestin-Cre/Llgl1fl/fl), a mammalian ortholog of the Drosophila cell polarity gene lgl, exhibit MCCs resembling severe periventricular heterotopia (PH). Immunohistochemical analyses and live cortical imaging of PH formation revealed that disruption of apical junctional complexes (AJCs) was responsible for PH in Nestin-Cre/Llgl1fl/fl brains. While it is well known that cell polarity proteins govern the formation of AJCs, the exact mechanisms remain unclear. We show that LLGL1 directly binds to and promotes internalization of N-cadherin, and N-cadherin/LLGL1 interaction is inhibited by atypical protein kinase C-mediated phosphorylation of LLGL1, restricting the accumulation of AJCs to the basolateral-apical boundary. Disruption of the N-cadherin-LLGL1 interaction during cortical development in vivo is sufficient for PH. These findings reveal a mechanism responsible for the physical and functional connection between cell polarity and cell-cell adhesion machineries in mammalian cells.

Feedback regulation of apical progenitor fate by immature neurons through Wnt7-Celsr3-Fzd3 signalling.

Sequential generation of neurons and glial cells during development is critical for the wiring and function of the cerebral cortex. This process requires accurate coordination of neural progenitor cell (NPC) fate decisions, by NPC-autonomous mechanisms as well as by negative feedback from neurons. Here, we show that neurogenesis is protracted and gliogenesis decreased in mice with mutations of genes Celsr3 and Fzd3. This phenotype is not due to gene inactivation in progenitors, but rather in immature cortical neurons. Mutant neurons are unable to upregulate expression of Jag1 in response to cortical Wnt7, resulting in blunted activation of Notch signalling in NPC. Thus, Celsr3 and Fzd3 enable immature neurons to respond to Wnt7, upregulate Jag1 and thereby facilitate feedback signals that tune the timing of NPC fate decisions via Notch activation.

Ephrin-B1 controls the columnar distribution of cortical pyramidal neurons by restricting their tangential migration.

Neurons of the cerebral cortex are organized in layers and columns. Unlike laminar patterning, the mechanisms underlying columnar organization remain largely unexplored. Here, we show that ephrin-B1 plays a key role in this process through the control of nonradial steps of migration of pyramidal neurons. In vivo gain of function of ephrin-B1 resulted in a reduction of tangential motility of pyramidal neurons, leading to abnormal neuronal clustering. Conversely, following genetic disruption of ephrin-B1, cortical neurons displayed a wider lateral dispersion, resulting in enlarged ontogenic columns. Dynamic analyses revealed that ephrin-B1 controls the lateral spread of pyramidal neurons by limiting neurite extension and tangential migration during the multipolar phase. Furthermore, we identified P-Rex1, a guanine-exchange factor for Rac3, as a downstream ephrin-B1 effector required to control migration during the multipolar phase. Our results demonstrate that ephrin-B1 inhibits nonradial migration of pyramidal neurons, thereby controlling the pattern of cortical columns.

Reelin, Rap1 and N-cadherin orient the migration of multipolar neurons in the developing neocortex.

Projection neurons migrate from the ventricular zone to the neocortical plate during the development of the mouse brain. Their overall movement is radial, but they become multipolar and move nonradially in the intermediate zone. Here we show that Reelin, the Rap1 GTPase and N-cadherin (NCad) are important for multipolar neurons to polarize their migration toward the cortical plate. Inhibition and rescue experiments indicated that Reelin regulates migration through Rap1 and Akt, and that the Rap1-regulated GTPases RalA, RalB, Rac1 and Cdc42 are also involved. We found that Rap1 regulated the plasma membrane localization of NCad and NCad rescued radial polarization when Rap1 was inhibited. However, inhibition of Rap1 or NCad had little effect on glia-dependent locomotion. We propose a multistep mechanism in which Reelin activates Rap1, Rap1 upregulates NCad, and NCad is needed to orient cell migration.

Polarization of migrating cortical neurons by Rap1 and N-cadherin: Revisiting the model for the Reelin signaling pathway.

Neuronal migration is essential for the development of the cerebral cortex. Mutations leading to defective migration are associated with numerous brain pathologies. An important challenge in the field is to understand the intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms that regulate neuronal migration during normal development and in disease. Many small GTPases are expressed in the central nervous system during embryonic development. Recent findings have shown that Rap1 and its downstream partners Ral, Rac and Cdc42 are involved in the maintenance of N-Cadherin at the plasma membrane which is necessary for the correct polarization of migrating neurons. The activation of Rap1 is triggered by Reelin, an extracellular protein known for its role in the organization of the cortex into layers of neurons. In the absence of Reelin, neurons exhibit a broader and irregular pattern of positioning. The prevailing model suggests that Reelin signals to neurons during the last step of their migration, a notion that is inconsistent with new data describing an effect of Reelin on early steps of migration. In regard to these recent findings I suggest a revised model, which I call the "polarity model," that further refines our understanding of the developmental function played by Reelin and its downstream small GTPases.

Cullin 5 regulates cortical layering by modulating the speed and duration of Dab1-dependent neuronal migration.

The multilayered mammalian neocortex develops by the coordinated immigration and differentiation of cells that are produced at distant sites. Correct layering requires an extracellular protein, Reelin (Reln), an intracellular signaling molecule, Disabled-1 (Dab1), and an E3 ubiquitin ligase, Cullin-5 (Cul5). Reln activates Dab1, which is then degraded by Cul5. Here we test whether Cul5 regulates neuron layering by affecting Dab1 stability or other mechanisms. We find that a stabilized mutant Dab1, which resists Cul5-dependent degradation, causes a similar phenotype to Cul5 deficiency. Moreover, Cul5 has no effect when Dab1 is absent. The effects of Cul5 and Dab1 are cell autonomous, and Cul5 regulates movement of early as well as late cortical neurons. Removing Cul5 increases the speed at which neurons migrate through the cortical plate by reducing the time spent stationary and increasing the speed of individual steps. These results show that Cul5 regulates neuron layering by stimulating Dab1 degradation and that Cul5 controls migration speed and stopping point, and they demonstrate the importance of negative feedback in signaling during cortical development.

Reelin signals through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and Akt to control cortical development and through mTor to regulate dendritic growth.

Reelin is an extracellular matrix protein with various functions during development and in the mature brain. It activates different signaling cascades in target cells, one of which is the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway, which we investigated further using pathway inhibitors and in vitro brain slice and neuronal cultures. We show that the mTor (mammalian target of rapamycin)-S6K1 (S6 kinase 1) pathway is activated by Reelin and that this depends on Dab1 (Disabled-1) phosphorylation and activation of PI3K and Akt (protein kinase B). PI3K and Akt are required for the effects of Reelin on the organization of the cortical plate, but their downstream partners mTor and glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3beta) are not. On the other hand, mTor, but not GSK3beta, mediates the effects of Reelin on the growth and branching of dendrites of hippocampal neurons. In addition, PI3K fosters radial migration of cortical neurons through the intermediate zone, an effect that is independent of Reelin and Akt.

ApoER2/VLDL receptor and Dab1 in the rostral migratory stream function in postnatal neuronal migration independently of Reelin.

Postnatal migration of interneuron precursors from the subventricular zone to the olfactory bulb occurs in chains that form the substrate for the rostral migratory stream. Reelin is suggested to induce detachment of neuroblasts from the chains when they arrive at the olfactory bulb. Here we show that ApoER2 and possibly very-low-density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR) and their intracellular adapter protein Dab1 are involved in chain formation most likely independent of Reelin. F-spondin, which is present in the stream, may act as ligand for ApoER2 and VLDLR. In mice lacking either both receptors or Dab1 chain formation is severely compromised, and as a consequence the rostral migratory stream is virtually absent and neuroblasts accumulate in the subventricular zone. The mutant animals exhibit severe neuroanatomical defects in the subventricular zone and in the olfactory bulb. These data demonstrate a cell-autonomous function of ApoER2, and most likely VLDLR and Dab1, in postnatal migration of neuroblasts in the forebrain, which is suggested to depend on ligands other than Reelin.

Processing of Reelin by embryonic neurons is important for function in tissue but not in dissociated cultured neurons.

Reelin, the protein defective in reeler mutant mice, plays a key role during brain development. Reelin is processed proteolytically at two sites, and the central fragment mimics function in vitro. Here, we show that processing is functionally important in vivo, a question that could not be addressed in our previous study. New monoclonal antibodies directed against central Reelin block its binding to lipoprotein receptors and perturb cortical development in vitro, confirming the importance of the central fragment that is detected in tissue and body fluids. Processing occurs when Reelin is incubated with embryonic neurons in culture or with their supernatant, but inhibition of processing by a metalloproteinase blocker does not prevent Reelin signaling in neurons. Furthermore, neurons internalize similarly full-length or central Reelin. In contrast, inhibition of processing prevents signaling and perturbs cortical development in cultured embryonic brain slices. Moreover, in vivo, the concentration of central Reelin is dramatically and selectively increased in receptor-deficient tissue, suggesting its specific downregulation after binding to receptors and internalization. We propose that processing by end-migration neurons is required in tissue (where Reelin is likely anchored to the extracellular matrix) to release the central fragment that diffuses locally and signals to target cells, whereas, in vitro, all Reelin forms have indiscriminate access to cells, so that cleavage is not necessary for signaling.

Identification of small molecules that interfere with radial neuronal migration and early cortical plate development.

Using a fetal brain slice culture system that recapitulates early cortical plate (CP) development, we screened the "Diversity Set" chemical library from the National Cancer Institute in order to identify molecules that interfere with radial migration and CP formation and identified 11 candidate molecules. Although most compounds had broadly similar effects, histological and immunohistochemical studies with preplate and neuronal differentiation markers disclosed some differences in the anomalies induced, suggesting that the identified molecules may act on different targets. Selected compounds were tested for activity on signaling pathways known to be important during radial migration and CP development, namely reelin, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt-protein kinase B(PKB)/glycogen synthase kinase-3ss (GSK3beta), atypical protein kinases C (aPKC), and Cdk5. No perturbation of reelin signaling or GSK3beta activity was detected. One molecule decreased the phosphorylation of Akt and focal adhesion kinase and may act via direct or indirect inhibition of Cdk5, whereas another inhibited phosphorylation of aPKCzeta/lambda and may interfere with cell polarity and leading edge formation or progression. These molecules potentially provide new tools to study a neuronal migration and CP development.

Recent progress in understanding the role of Reelin in radial neuronal migration, with specific emphasis on the dentate gyrus.

Ten years following identification of Reelin as the product of the gene mutated in reeler mice, the signalling pathway activated by Reelin is being progressively unravelled with the identification of lipoprotein receptors as reelin receptors, of the Dab1 adapter and of some other proximal components in target cells. However, we are still a long way from understanding the action of this complex protein during brain development and maturation. The present review is organized in two parts. First, we summarize our present understanding of Reelin signalling. Then, we review critically some cell biological mechanisms for the action of Reelin based on recent studies on the development of the dentate gyrus, which has proved an extremely useful and tractable model system.

The development of cortical connections.

The cortex receives its major sensory input from the thalamus via thalamocortical axons, and cortical neurons are interconnected in complex networks by corticocortical and callosal axons. Our understanding of the mechanisms generating the circuitry that confers functional properties on cortical neurons and networks, although poor, has been advanced significantly by recent research on the molecular mechanisms of thalamocortical axonal guidance and ordering. Here we review recent advances in knowledge of how thalamocortical axons are guided and how they maintain order during that process. Several studies have shown the importance in this process of guidance molecules including Eph receptors and ephrins, members of the Wnt signalling pathway and members of a novel planar cell polarity pathway. Signalling molecules and transcription factors expressed with graded concentrations across the cortex are important in establishing cortical maps of the topography of sensory surfaces. Neural activity, both spontaneous and evoked, plays a role in refining thalamocortical connections but recent work has indicated that neural activity is less important than was previously thought for the development of some early maps. A strategy used widely in the development of corticocortical and callosal connections is the early overproduction of projections followed by selection after contact with the target structure. Here we discuss recent work in primates indicating that elimination of juvenile projections is not a major mechanism in the development of pathways feeding information forward to higher levels of cortical processing, although its use is common to developing feedback pathways.