C. elegans monitor energy status via the AMPK pathway to trigger innate immune responses against bacterial pathogens.

Pathogen recognition and the triggering of host innate immune system are critical to understanding pathogen-host interaction. Cellular surveillance systems have been identified as an important strategy for the identification of microbial infection. In the present study, using Bacillus thuringiensis-Caenorhabditis elegans as a model, we found an approach for surveillance systems to sense pathogens. We report that Bacillus thuringiensis Cry5Ba, a typical pore-forming toxin, caused mitochondrial damage and energy imbalance by triggering potassium ion leakage, instead of directly targeting mitochondria. Interestingly, we find C. elegans can monitor intracellular energy status to trigger innate immune responses via AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), secreting multiple effectors to defend against pathogenic attacks. Our study indicates that the imbalance of energy status is a prevalent side effect of pathogen infection. Furthermore, the AMPK-dependent surveillance system may serve as a practicable strategy for the host to recognize and defense against pathogens.

The Ditylenchus destructor genome provides new insights into the evolution of plant parasitic nematodes.

Plant-parasitic nematodes were found in 4 of the 12 clades of phylum Nematoda. These nematodes in different clades may have originated independently from their free-living fungivorous ancestors. However, the exact evolutionary process of these parasites is unclear. Here, we sequenced the genome sequence of a migratory plant nematode, Ditylenchus destructor We performed comparative genomics among the free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans and all the plant nematodes with genome sequences available. We found that, compared with C. elegans, the core developmental control processes underwent heavy reduction, though most signal transduction pathways were conserved. We also found D. destructor contained more homologies of the key genes in the above processes than the other plant nematodes. We suggest that Ditylenchus spp. may be an intermediate evolutionary history stage from free-living nematodes that feed on fungi to obligate plant-parasitic nematodes. Based on the facts that D. destructor can feed on fungi and has a relatively short life cycle, and that it has similar features to both C. elegans and sedentary plant-parasitic nematodes from clade 12, we propose it as a new model to study the biology, biocontrol of plant nematodes and the interaction between nematodes and plants.

Alcaligenes faecalis ZD02, a Novel Nematicidal Bacterium with an Extracellular Serine Protease Virulence Factor.

Root knot nematodes (RKNs) are the world's most damaging plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs), and they can infect almost all crops. At present, harmful chemical nematicides are applied to control RKNs. Using microbial nematicides has been proposed as a better management strategy than chemical control. In this study, we describe a novel nematicidal bacterium named Alcaligenes faecalis ZD02. A. faecalis ZD02 was isolated from Caenorhabditis elegans cadavers and has nematostatic and nematicidal activity, as confirmed by C. elegans growth assay and life span assay. In addition, A. faecalis ZD02 fermentation broth showed toxicity against C. elegans and Meloidogyne incognita. To identify the nematicidal virulence factor, the genome of strain ZD02 was sequenced. By comparing all of the predicted proteins of strain ZD02 to reported nematicidal virulence factors, we determined that an extracellular serine protease (Esp) has potential to be a nematicidal virulence factor, which was confirmed by bioassay on C. elegans and M. incognita. Using C. elegans as the target model, we found that both A. faecalis ZD02 and the virulence factor Esp can damage the intestines of C. elegans. The discovery that A. faecalis ZD02 has nematicidal activity provides a novel bacterial resource for the control of RKNs.

Bacillus thuringiensis Crystal Protein Cry6Aa Triggers Caenorhabditis elegans Necrosis Pathway Mediated by Aspartic Protease (ASP-1).

Cell death plays an important role in host-pathogen interactions. Crystal proteins (toxins) are essential components of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) biological pesticides because of their specific toxicity against insects and nematodes. However, the mode of action by which crystal toxins to induce cell death is not completely understood. Here we show that crystal toxin triggers cell death by necrosis signaling pathway using crystal toxin Cry6Aa-Caenorhabditis elegans toxin-host interaction system, which involves an increase in concentrations of cytoplasmic calcium, lysosomal lyses, uptake of propidium iodide, and burst of death fluorescence. We find that a deficiency in the necrosis pathway confers tolerance to Cry6Aa toxin. Intriguingly, the necrosis pathway is specifically triggered by Cry6Aa, not by Cry5Ba, whose amino acid sequence is different from that of Cry6Aa. Furthermore, Cry6Aa-induced necrosis pathway requires aspartic protease (ASP-1). In addition, ASP-1 protects Cry6Aa from over-degradation in C. elegans. This is the first demonstration that deficiency in necrosis pathway confers tolerance to Bt crystal protein, and that Cry6A triggers necrosis represents a newly added necrosis paradigm in the C. elegans. Understanding this model could lead to new strategies for nematode control.

The complete genome sequence of Alcaligenes faecalis ZD02, a novel potential bionematocide.

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) can infect almost all crops, and result in huge economic losses in agriculture. There is no effective and environmentally safe means available to control RKNs. Alcaligenes faecalis ZD02 isolated from free living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans cadavers shows toxicity against RKN Meloidogyne incognita, that makes this strain to be a good bionematicide candidate for controlling of RKNs. Here, we firstly report the complete genome of A. faecalis ZD02 and describe its features. Additionally, we found two potential virulence factors in this genome, which play important roles for the nematocidal activity of A. faecalis ZD02.

Promoters of crystal protein genes do not control crystal formation inside exosporium of Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. finitimus strain YBT-020.

Most Bacillus thuringiensis parasporal crystals separate from spores after sporulation. A special phenomenon called spore-crystal association (SCA) occurs in a few subspecies (e.g. ssp. finitimus) where enclosed crystals are associated with spores. In this study, the involvement of crystal protein gene promoters in SCA was investigated. Two crystal protein genes, cry26Aa and cry28Aa, were isolated from subspecies finitimus strain YBT-020, and each or both were then transferred to acrystalliferous B. thuringiensis strain BMB171 and the plasmid-cured derivative of strain YBT-020. SCA was not observed with any recombinant strain, implying that the crystal protein genes are not sufficient to cause SCA. When the typical crystal protein gene cry1Ca was introduced into strain YBT-020, free bipyramidal crystals formed in addition to SCA. Recombinant genes containing the promoter of cry26Aa or cry28Aa fused with the coding sequence (CDS) of cry1Ca were introduced into strain YBT-020, and the typical cry1Ca phenotype was observed. Another two fusion genes consisting of the promoter of cry1Ca and the CDS of cry26Aa or cry28Aa were also transferred to strain YBT-020. Only enclosed crystals formed. These results indicate that the promoters of the crystal protein genes are not the key factor determining the crystal location in strain YBT-020.