Annual Endovascular Thrombectomy Case Volume and Thrombectomy-capable Hospitals of Korea in Acute Stroke Care / 예방의학회지

Objectives@#Although it is difficult to define the quality of stroke care, acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients with moderate-to-severe neurological deficits may benefit from thrombectomy-capable hospitals (TCHs) that have a stroke unit, stroke specialists, and a substantial endovascular thrombectomy (EVT) case volume. @*Methods@#From national audit data collected between 2013 and 2016, potential EVT candidates arriving within 24 hours with a baseline National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score ≥6 were identified. Hospitals were classified as TCHs (≥15 EVT case/y, stroke unit, and stroke specialists), primary stroke hospitals (PSHs) without EVT (PSHs-without-EVT, 0 case/y), and PSHs-with-EVT. Thirty-day and 1-year case-fatality rates (CFRs) were analyzed using random intercept multilevel logistic regression. @*Results@#Out of 35 004 AIS patients, 7954 (22.7%) EVT candidates were included in this study. The average 30-day CFR was 16.3% in PSHs-without-EVT, 14.8% in PSHs-with-EVT, and 11.0% in TCHs. The average 1-year CFR was 37.5% in PSHs-without-EVT, 31.3% in PSHs-with-EVT, and 26.2% in TCHs. In TCHs, a significant reduction was not found in the 30-day CFR (odds ratio [OR], 0.92; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.76 to 1.12), but was found in the 1-year CFR (OR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.73 to 0.96). @*Conclusions@#The 1-year CFR was significantly reduced when EVT candidates were treated at TCHs. TCHs are not defined based solely on the number of EVTs, but also based on the presence of a stroke unit and stroke specialists. This supports the need for TCH certification in Korea and suggests that annual EVT case volume could be used to qualify TCHs.

Risk Factors for the Prescription of Ineffective Antiviral Candidates for COVID-19 During the Early Pandemic Period in Korea

Background@#Although the evidence of treatment for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) changed rapidly, little is known about the patterns of potential pharmacological treatment during the early period of the COVID-19 pandemic in Korea and the risk factors for ineffective prescription. @*Methods@#Using claims data from the Korean National Health Insurance System, this retrospective cohort study included admission episodes for COVID-19 from February to December 2020. Ineffective antiviral prescriptions for COVID-19 were defined as lopinavir/ ritonavir (LPN/r) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) prescribed after July 2020, according to the revised National Institute of Health COVID-19 treatment guidelines. Factors associated with ineffective prescriptions, including patient and hospital factors, were identified by multivariate logistic regression analysis. @*Results@#Of the 15,723 COVID-19 admission episodes from February to June 2020, 4,183 (26.6%) included prescriptions of LPN/r, and 3,312 (21.1%) included prescriptions of HCQ.Of the 48,843 admission episodes from July to December 2020, after the guidelines were revised, 2,258 (4.6%) and 182 (0.4%) included prescriptions of ineffective LPN/r and HCQ, respectively. Patient factors independently associated with ineffective antiviral prescription were older age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] per 10-year increase, 1.17; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.14–1.20) and severe condition with an oxygen requirement (aOR, 2.49; 95% CI, 2.24–2.77). The prescription of ineffective antiviral drugs was highly prevalent in primary and nursing hospitals (aOR, 40.58; 95% CI, 31.97–51.50), public sector hospitals (aOR, 15.61; 95% CI, 12.76–19.09), and regions in which these drugs were highly prescribed before July 2020 (aOR, 10.65; 95% CI, 8.26–13.74). @*Conclusion@#Ineffective antiviral agents were prescribed to a substantial number of patients during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in Korea. Treatment with these ineffective drugs tended to be prolonged in severely ill patients and in primary and public hospitals.

Impact assessment of mobility restriction, testing, and vaccination on the COVID-19 pandemic in India

BackgroundBefore the availability of vaccines, countries largely relied on mobility restriction and testing to mitigate the COVID-19 pandemic. Our aim is to assess the combined impact of mobility restriction, testing, and vaccination on the COVID-19 pandemic in India. MethodsWe conducted a multiple regression analysis to assess the impact of mobility, testing, and vaccination on COVID-19 incidence between April 28, 2021 to November 24, 2021 using data from Our World in Data and Google Mobility Report. The 7-day moving average was applied to offset the daily fluctuations in the mobility and testing. Each independent variable was lagged to construct a temporal relationship, and waning vaccination efficacy was taken into consideration. We performed additional analysis for three time periods between March 28, 2020 to November 24, 2021 (1st: March 28, 2020 [~] October 7, 2020, 2nd: October 8, 2020 [~] April 27, 2021, 3rd: April 28, 2021 [~] November 24, 2021) to examine potential heterogeneity over time. ResultsMobility (0.041, 95% CI: 0.033 to 0.048), testing (-0.008, 95% CI: -0.015 to -0.001), and vaccination (quadratic term: 0.004, 95% CI: 0.003 to 0.005, linear term: -0.130, 95% CI: -0.161 to -0.099) were all associated with COVID-19 incidence. For vaccination rate, the decrease of number of cases demonstrated a U-shaped curve, while mobility showed a positive association and testing showed an inverse association with COVID-19 incidence. Mobility restriction was effective during all three periods - March 28, 2020 to November 24, 2021 (0.009, 0.048, and 0.026 respectively). Testing was effective during the second and third period - October 8, 2020 to November 24, 2021 (-0.036, and -0.006 respectively). ConclusionMobility restriction and testing were effective even in the presence of vaccination. This shows the positive value of mobility restrictions, testing, and vaccination from the health system perspective on COVID-19 prevention and control, especially with continual emergence of variants in India and globally. At the same time, this health system gain must be balanced with the challenges in the delivery of non-COVID health services and broader socio-economic impact in deciding the prolonged continuance of mobility restriction.

How well does societal mobility restriction help control the COVID-19 pandemic? Evidence from real-time evaluation

ObjectivesTo determine the impact of restrictions on mobility on reducing transmission of COVID-19. DesignDaily incidence rates lagged by 14 days were regressed on mobility changes using LOESS regression and logit regression between the day of the 100th case in each country to August 31, 2020. Setting34 OECD countries plus Singapore and Taiwan. ParticipantsGoogle mobility data were obtained from people who turned on mobile device-based global positioning system (GPS) and agreed to share their anonymized position information with Google. InterventionsWe examined the association of COVID-19 incidence rates with mobility changes, defined as changes in categories of domestic location, against a pre-pandemic baseline, using country-specific daily incidence data on newly confirmed COVID-19 cases and mobility data. ResultsIn two thirds of examined countries, reductions of up to 40% in commuting mobility (to workplaces, transit stations, retailers, and recreation) were associated with decreased COVID-19 incidence, more so early in the pandemic. However, these decreases plateaued as mobility remained low or decreased further. We found smaller or negligible associations between mobility restriction and incidence rates in the late phase in most countries. ConclusionMild to moderate degrees of mobility restriction in most countries were associated with reduced incidence rates of COVID-19 that appear to attenuate over time, while some countries exhibited no effect of such restrictions. More detailed research is needed to precisely understand the benefits and limitations of mobility restrictions as part of the public health response to the COVID-19 pandemic. WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPICSince SARS-CoV-2 became a pandemic, restrictions on mobility such as limitations on travel and closure of offices, restaurants, and shops have been imposed in an unprecedented way in both scale and scope to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in the absence of effective treatment options or a vaccine. Although mobility restriction has also brought about tremendous costs such as negative economic growth and other collateral impacts on health such as increased morbidity and mortality from lack of access to other essential health services, little evidence exists on the effectiveness of mobility restriction for the prevention of disease transmission. A search of PUBMED and Google Scholar for publications on this topic through Sep 20, 2020 revealed that most of the evidence on the effectiveness of physical distancing comes from mathematical modeling studies using a variety of assumptions. One study investigated only the combined effect of several interventions, including physical distancing, among SARS-CoV-2 infected patients. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDSThis is the first study to investigate the association between change in mobility and incidence of COVID-19 globally using real-time measures of mobility at the population level. For this, we used Google Global Mobility data and the daily incidence of COVID-19 for 36 countries from the day of 100th case detection through August 31, 2020. Our findings from LOESS regression show that in two-thirds of countries, reductions of up to 40% in commuting mobility were associated with decreased COVID-19 incidence, more so early in the pandemic. This decrease, however, plateaued as mobility decreased further. We found that associations between mobility restriction and incidence became smaller or negligible in the late phase of the pandemic in most countries. The reduced incidence rate of COVID-19 cases with a mild to moderate degree of mobility restriction in most countries suggests some value to limited mobility restriction in early phases of epidemic mitigation. The lack of impact in some others, however, suggests further research is needed to confirm these findings and determine the distinguishing factors for when mobility restrictions are helpful in decreasing viral transmission. Governments should carefully consider the level and period of mobility restriction necessary to achieve the desired benefits and minimize harm.

Study Design for the 2016 Baseline Survey of a Health System Strengthening Project in Quoc Oai District, Hanoi, Vietnam

BACKGROUND: In order to provide essential scientific evidence on the population's health status and social health determinants as well as the current capacity of the health care system in Vietnam to health policy makers and managers, Vietnam Ministry of Health, Hanoi University of Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, and Ho Chi Minh University of Medicine and Pharmacy collaborated with Seoul National University (Korea) and conducted a health system survey in the Quoc Oai district (of Hanoi capital) that represented northern rural Vietnam. METHODS: The study design was a cross-sectional study. The survey covered different topics (more than 200 questions) and was administered in three separate questionnaires: 1) Basic information of all household members; 2) Household characteristics; and 3) Individual characteristics. Socio-demographic characteristics among the households and individuals were collected from 2,400 households sampled by multi-stage cluster sampling method: more than 200 questions. RESULTS: The household size of Quoc Oai was larger than the national average and there was no significant difference in gender composition. In addition, the proportions of pre-elderly, age 55–64, and elderly group (65 years old and over) were higher than the national population statistics. In this context, demographic transition has begun in Quoc Oai. CONCLUSION: This study design description provides the basic information about a baseline survey of a future prospective cohort (as a part of a collaborative project on strengthening the health system in Vietnam) to the prospective data user of this survey.

The unrealized potential: cohort effects and age-period-cohort analysis / 한국역학회지

This study aims to provide a systematical introduction of age-period-cohort (APC) analysis to South Korean readers who are unfamiliar with this method (we provide an extended version of this study in Korean). As health data in South Korea has substantially accumulated, population-level studies that explore long-term trends of health status and health inequalities and identify macrosocial determinants of the trends are needed. Analyzing long-term trends requires to discern independent effects of age, period, and cohort using APC analysis. Most existing health and aging literature have used cross-sectional or short-term available panel data to identify age or period effects ignoring cohort effects. This under-use of APC analysis may be attributed to the identification (ID) problem caused by the perfect linear dependency across age, period, and cohort. This study explores recently developed three APC models to address the ID problem and adequately estimate the effects of A-P-C: intrinsic estimator-APC models for tabular age by period data; hierarchical cross-classified random effects models for repeated cross-sectional data; and hierarchical APC-growth curve models for accelerated longitudinal panel data. An analytic exemplar for each model was provided. APC analysis may contribute to identifying biological, historical, and socioeconomic determinants in long-term trends of health status and health inequalities as well as examining Korean's aging trajectories and temporal trends of period and cohort effects. For designing effective health policies that improve Korean population's health and reduce health inequalities, it is essential to understand independent effects of the three temporal factors by using the innovative APC models.

The unrealized potential: cohort effects and age-period-cohort analysis / 한국역학회지

This study aims to provide a systematical introduction of age-period-cohort (APC) analysis to South Korean readers who are unfamiliar with this method (we provide an extended version of this study in Korean). As health data in South Korea has substantially accumulated, population-level studies that explore long-term trends of health status and health inequalities and identify macrosocial determinants of the trends are needed. Analyzing long-term trends requires to discern independent effects of age, period, and cohort using APC analysis. Most existing health and aging literature have used cross-sectional or short-term available panel data to identify age or period effects ignoring cohort effects. This under-use of APC analysis may be attributed to the identification (ID) problem caused by the perfect linear dependency across age, period, and cohort. This study explores recently developed three APC models to address the ID problem and adequately estimate the effects of A-P-C: intrinsic estimator-APC models for tabular age by period data; hierarchical cross-classified random effects models for repeated cross-sectional data; and hierarchical APC-growth curve models for accelerated longitudinal panel data. An analytic exemplar for each model was provided. APC analysis may contribute to identifying biological, historical, and socioeconomic determinants in long-term trends of health status and health inequalities as well as examining Korean's aging trajectories and temporal trends of period and cohort effects. For designing effective health policies that improve Korean population's health and reduce health inequalities, it is essential to understand independent effects of the three temporal factors by using the innovative APC models.

Pregnancy, Prenatal Care, and Delivery of Mothers with Disabilities in Korea

The aim of this study was to investigate the whole picture regarding pregnancy, prenatal care, obstetrical complications, and delivery among disabled pregnant women in Korea. Using the data of National Health Insurance Corporation, we extracted the data of women who terminated pregnancy including delivery and abortion from January 1, 2010 to December 31, 2010. Pearson's chi-square test and Student-t test were conducted to examine the difference between disabled women and non-disabled women. Also, to define the factors affecting inadequate prenatal care, logistic regression was performed. The total number of pregnancy were 463,847; disabled women was 2,968 (0.6%) and 460,879 (99.4%) were by non-disabled women. Abortion rates (27.6%), Cesarean section rate (54.5%), and the rate of receiving inadequate prenatal care (17.0%), and the rate of being experienced at least one obstetrical complication (11.3%) among disabled women were higher than those among non-disabled women (P < 0.001). Beneficiaries of Medical Aid (OR, 2.21) (P < 0.001) and severe disabled women (OR, 1.46) (P = 0.002) were more likely to receive inadequate prenatal care. In conclusion, disabled women are more vulnerable in pregnancy, prenatal care and delivery. Therefore, the government and society should pay more attention to disabled pregnant women to ensure they have a safe pregnancy period up until the delivery.

Pregnancy, Prenatal Care, and Delivery of Mothers with Disabilities in Korea

The aim of this study was to investigate the whole picture regarding pregnancy, prenatal care, obstetrical complications, and delivery among disabled pregnant women in Korea. Using the data of National Health Insurance Corporation, we extracted the data of women who terminated pregnancy including delivery and abortion from January 1, 2010 to December 31, 2010. Pearson's chi-square test and Student-t test were conducted to examine the difference between disabled women and non-disabled women. Also, to define the factors affecting inadequate prenatal care, logistic regression was performed. The total number of pregnancy were 463,847; disabled women was 2,968 (0.6%) and 460,879 (99.4%) were by non-disabled women. Abortion rates (27.6%), Cesarean section rate (54.5%), and the rate of receiving inadequate prenatal care (17.0%), and the rate of being experienced at least one obstetrical complication (11.3%) among disabled women were higher than those among non-disabled women (P < 0.001). Beneficiaries of Medical Aid (OR, 2.21) (P < 0.001) and severe disabled women (OR, 1.46) (P = 0.002) were more likely to receive inadequate prenatal care. In conclusion, disabled women are more vulnerable in pregnancy, prenatal care and delivery. Therefore, the government and society should pay more attention to disabled pregnant women to ensure they have a safe pregnancy period up until the delivery.

PREFACE

No abstract available.

Patterns of Health Expenditures and Financial Protections in Vietnam 1992-2012

Health financing has been considered as an important building block of a health system and has a key role in promoting universal health coverage in the Vietnam. This paper aims to describe the pattern of health expenditure, including total health expenditure and composition of health expenditure, over the last two decades in Vietnam. The paper mainly uses the data from Vietnam National Health Account and Vietnam Living Standards Survey. We also included data from other relevant published literature, reports and statistics about health care expenditure in Vietnam. The per capita health expenditure in Vietnam increased from US$ 14 in 1995 to US$ 86 in 2012. The total health expenditure as a share of GDP also rose from 5.2% in 1995 to 6.9% in 2012. Public health expenditure as percentage of government expenditure rose from 7.4% in 1995 to nearly 10% in 2012. The coverage of health insurance went up from 10% in 1995 to 68.5% in 2012. However, health financing in Vietnam was depending on private expenditures (57.4% in 2012). As a result, the proportion of households with catastrophic expenditure in 2012 was 4.2%. The rate of impoverishment in 2012 was 2.5%. To ensure equity and efficient goal of health system, policy actions for containing the health care out-of-pocket payments and their poverty impacts are urgently needed in Vietnam.

Republic of Korea's Health Aid Governance: Perspectives from Partner Countries

The Republic of Korea (ROK) has a remarkable development history, including its status as the first country to transition from aid recipient to member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Development Assistance Committee (DAC). However, since becoming a donor country, the ROK has struggled to achieve internationally accepted agreements related to aid effectiveness and several evaluations have identified the ROK as being one of the weakest DAC member countries at providing good aid. A survey was conducted to assess partner countries' perceptions of the ROK's governance of health official development assistance (ODA). The survey was administered to government officials based in partner countries' Ministries of Health and therefore presents the unique perspective of ODA recipients. The survey questions focused on governance principles established in the internationally-accepted Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness. The total response rate was 13 responses out of 26 individuals who received the email request (50%). The survey results indicate that progress has been made since earlier international evaluations but the ROK has not overcome all areas of concern. This confirms that the ROK is continuing to develop its capacity as a good donor but has yet to achieve all governance-related targets. The results of this survey can be used to inform a future aid strategy.

Characteristics of Self-injury, Suicide by Sex, Age, Educational Attainments and Occupation

PURPOSE: In an effort to determine the characteristics of suicide, which is a serious social problem, we analyzed the relationship with gender, age, educational level, occupation, and suicidal attempt and completed suicide. The results of this study could serve as fundamental material for suicide preventive education and improvement of health. METHODS: General characteristics of completed suicide, attempted suicide, and total injured according to gender, age, educational level, and occupation were compared using the injury surveillance dataset, the material from in-depth investigation of patients in the emergency room. All injuries from suicidal attempts and completed suicide of suicidal attempts were analyzed by logistic regression. RESULTS: The rate of injury by attempted suicide was higher in women than in men; however, completed suicide showed more male dominance, in comparison with other injuries. And, for age, the highest was observed for 30-40s. The lower educational attainment subgroup showed the highest level of attempt, and for the occupation, unemployed, skilled agriculture or fishery workers, soldiers, students, and housewives showed the highest value. CONCLUSION: Vulnerable demographic and socioeconomic groups, including women, low level of education, unemployed, skilled agriculture or fishery workers, soldiers, students, and housewives are weaken to attempted suicide, and intensive management, education, and supportive policy are necessary to those groups.

Moving toward Universal Coverage of Health Insurance in Vietnam: Barriers, Facilitating Factors, and Lessons from Korea

Vietnam has pursued universal health insurance coverage for two decades but has yet to fully achieve this goal. This paper investigates the barriers to achieve universal coverage and examines the validity of facilitating factors to shorten the transitional period in Vietnam. A comparative study of facilitating factors toward universal coverage of Vietnam and Korea reveals significant internal forces for Vietnam to further develop the National Health Insurance Program. Korea in 1977 and Vietnam in 2009 have common characteristics to be favorable of achieving universal coverage with similarities of level of income, highly qualified administrative ability, tradition of solidarity, and strong political leadership although there are differences in distribution of population and structure of the economy. From a comparative perspective, Vietnam can consider the experience of Korea in implementing the mandatory enrollment approach, household unit of eligibility, design of contribution and benefit scheme, and resource allocation to health insurance for sustainable government subsidy to achieve and sustain the universal coverage of health insurance.

The Relationship Between the Social Network of Community-living Elders and Their Health-related Quality of Life in Korean Province / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to collect information that will help enhance the social networks and improve the quality of life among elderly people by observing the relationship between their social network and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and by analyzing social network factors affecting HRQoL. METHODS: This study was based on the 2008 Community Health Survey in Yeoncheon County. Three hundred elders were included in the study population. We compared the revised Lubben Social Network Scale (LSNS-R) score and Euro quality of life-5 dimensions health status index by demographic characteristics and chronic disease prevalence. We analyzed the data using multiple regression and tobit regression by setting the HRQoL as the dependent variable and social network and other characteristics as the independent variables. We analyzed social network factors by using factor analysis. RESULTS: The LSNS-R score differed significantly according to age and existence of a spouse. According to the results from the hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the LSNS-R explained 0.10 of the variance and LSNS-R friends factor explained 0.10 of the variance. The tobit regression indicated that the contribution of the LSNS-R family size factor to the regression coefficient of the independent variable that affected the HRQoL was BT=2.96, that of the LSNS-R family frequency factor was BT=3.60, and that of LSNS-R friends factor was BT=5.41. CONCLUSIONS: Social networks among elderly people had a significant effect on HRQoL and their networks of friends had a relatively higher effect than those of family members.

Factors Affecting Public Prejudice and Social Distance on Mental Illness: Analysis of Contextual Effect by Multi-level Analysis / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: While there have been many quantitative studies on the public's attitude towards mental illnesses, it is hard to find quantitative study which focused on the contextual effect on the public's attitude. The purpose of this study was to identify factors that affect the public's beliefs and attitudes including contextual effects. METHODS: We analyzed survey on the public's beliefs and attitudes towards mental illness in Korea with multi-level analysis. We analyzed the public's beliefs and attitudes in terms of prejudice as an intermediate outcome and social distance as a final outcome. Then, we focused on the associations of factors, which were individual and regional socio-economic factors, familiarity, and knowledge based on the comparison of the intermediate and final outcomes. RESULTS: Prejudice was not explained by regional variables but was only correlated with individual factors. Prejudice increased with age and decreased by high education level. However, social distance controlling for prejudice increased in females, in people with a high education level, and in regions with a high education level and a high proportion of the old. Therefore, social distance without controlling for prejudice increased in females, in the elderly, in highly educated people, and in regions with a high education and aged community. CONCLUSIONS: The result of the multi-level analysis for the regional variables suggests that social distance for mental illness are not only determined by individual factors but also influenced by the surroundings so that it could be tackled sufficiently with appropriate considering of the relevant regional context with individual characteristics.

The Change in Readmission Rate, Length of Stay and Hospital Charge after Performance Reporting of Hip Hemiarthroplasty / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: We assessed impact of performance reporting information about the readmission rate, length of stay and cost of hip hemiarthroplasty. METHODS: The data are from a nationwide claims database, National Quality Improvement Project database, of Health Insurance Review & Assessment Service in Korea. From January 2006 to April 2008, we received information of length of stay, readmission within 30 days, cost of 22 851 hip hemiarthroplasty episodes. Each episodes has retained the diagnoses of comorbidities and demographics. We used time-series analysis to assess the shifting of patients selections, between high volume(over 16 operations in a year) and low volume institutions, after performance reporting (december 2007). The changes of quality (readmission, length of stay) and cost were evaluated by multilevel analysis with adjustment of patient's factors and institutional factors after performance reporting. RESULTS: As compared with the before performance reporting, the proportion of patients who choose the high volume institution, increased 3.45% and the trends continued 4 months at marginal significance (p=0.059). After performance reporting, national average readmission rate, length of stay were decreased by 0.49 OR (95% CI=0.25-0.95) and 10% (beta=-0.102 p<0.01) and cost was not changed (beta=-0.01, p<0.27). The high volume institutions were more decreased than low volume in length of stay. CONCLUSIONS: After performance reporting, readmission rate, length of stay were decreased and the patient selections were marginal shifted from low volume institutions to high volume institutions.

Differential Effects of Family Income on Self-rated Health by Age: Analysis of Seoul Citizens Health Indicators Survey 2001, 2005 / 예방의학회지

OBJECTIVES: This study was conducted in order to determine how the association between socioeconomic position(SEP) and health status changes with age among Seoul residents aged 25 and over. METHODS: We utilized the 2001 and 2005 Seoul Citizens Health Indicators Surveys. We used self-rated 'poor' health status as an outcome variable, and family income as an indicator of SEP. In order to characterize the differential effects of socioeconomic position on health by age, we conducted separate multivariate analyses by 10-year age groups, controlling for sociodemographic covariates. In order to assess the relative health inequality across socioeconomic groups, we estimated the Relative Index of Inequality (RII). RESULTS: The risk of 'poor health' is significantly high in low family income groups, and this increased risk is seen at all ages. However, the magnitude of relative socioeconomic inequality in health, as measured by the odds ratio and RII, is not identical across age groups. The difference in health across income groups is small in early adulthood (ages 25-34), but increases with age until relatively late in life (ages 35-64). It then decreases among the elderly population (ages more than 65). When the RII reported in 2005 is compared to that reported in 2001, RII can be seen to have increased across all ages, with the exception of individuals aged 25-34. CONCLUSIONS: The magnitude of health inequality is the greatest during mid- to late adulthood (ages 45-64). In addition, health inequalities have worsened between 2001 and 2005 across all age groups after economic crisis.