Differential bone-forming capacity of osteogenic cells from either embryonic stem cells or bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells.

For more than a decade, human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) have been used in bone tissue-engineering research. More recently some of the focus in this field has shifted towards the use of embryonic stem cells. While it is well known that hMSCs are able to form bone when implanted subcutaneously in immune-deficient mice, the osteogenic potential of embryonic stem cells has been mainly assessed in vitro. Therefore, we performed a series of studies to compare the in vitro and in vivo osteogenic capacities of human and mouse embryonic stem cells to those of hMSCs. Embryonic and mesenchymal stem cells showed all characteristic signs of osteogenic differentiation in vitro when cultured in osteogenic medium, including the deposition of a mineralized matrix and expression of genes involved in osteogenic differentiation. As such, based on the in vitro results, osteogenic ES cells could not be discriminated from osteogenic hMSCs. Nevertheless, although osteogenic hMSCs formed bone upon implantation, osteogenic cells derived from both human and mouse embryonic stem cells did not form functional bone, indicated by absence of osteocytes, bone marrow and lamellar bone. Although embryonic stem cells show all signs of osteogenic differentiation in vitro, it appears that, in contrast to mesenchymal stem cells, they do not possess the ability to form bone in vivo when a similar culture method and osteogenic differentiation protocol was applied.

Skeletal tissue engineering using embryonic stem cells.

Various cell types have been investigated as candidate cell sources for cartilage and bone tissue engineering. In this review, we focused on chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation of mouse and human embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and their potential in cartilage and bone tissue engineering. A decade ago, mouse ESCs were first used as a model to study cartilage and bone development and essential genes, factors and conditions for chondrogenesis and osteogenesis were unravelled. This knowledge, combined with data from the differentiation of adult stem cells, led to successful chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation of mouse ESCs and later also human ESCs. Next, researchers focused on the use of ESCs for skeletal tissue engineering. Cartilage and bone tissue was formed in vivo using ESCs. However, the amount, homogeneity and stability of the cartilage and bone formed were still insufficient for clinical application. The current protocols require improvement not only in differentiation efficiency but also in ESC-specific hurdles, such as tumourigenicity and immunorejection. In addition, some of the general tissue engineering challenges, such as cell seeding and nutrient limitation in larger constructs, will also apply for ESCs. In conclusion, there are still many challenges, but there is potential for ESCs in skeletal tissue engineering.

A newly developed chemically crosslinked dextran-poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel for cartilage tissue engineering.

Cartilage tissue engineering, in which chondrogenic cells are combined with a scaffold, is a cell-based approach to regenerate damaged cartilage. Various scaffold materials have been investigated, among which are hydrogels. Previously, we have developed dextran-based hydrogels that form under physiological conditions via a Michael-type addition reaction. Hydrogels can be formed in situ by mixing a thiol-functionalized dextran with a tetra-acrylated star poly(ethylene glycol) solution. In this article we describe how the degradation time of dextran-poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels can be varied from 3 to 7 weeks by changing the degree of substitution of thiol groups on dextran. The degradation times increased slightly after encapsulation of chondrocytes in the gels. The effect of the gelation reaction on cell viability and cartilage formation in the hydrogels was investigated. Chondrocytes or embryonic stem cells were mixed in the aqueous dextran solution, and we confirmed that the cells survived gelation. After a 3-week culturing period, chondrocytes and embryonic stem cell-derived embryoid bodies were still viable and both cell types produced cartilaginous tissue. Our data demonstrate the potential of dextran hydrogels for cartilage tissue engineering strategies.

Endochondral bone tissue engineering using embryonic stem cells.

Embryonic stem cells can provide an unlimited supply of pluripotent cells for tissue engineering applications. Bone tissue engineering by directly differentiating ES cells (ESCs) into osteoblasts has been unsuccessful so far. Therefore, we investigated an alternative approach, based on the process of endochondral ossification. A cartilage matrix was formed in vitro by mouse ESCs seeded on a scaffold. When these cartilage tissue-engineered constructs (CTECs) were implanted s.c., the cartilage matured, became hypertrophic, calcified, and was ultimately replaced by bone tissue in the course of 21 days. Bone aligning hypertrophic cartilage was observed frequently. Using various chondrogenic differentiation periods in vitro, we demonstrated that a cartilage matrix is required for bone formation by ESCs. Chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells and articular chondrocytes showed that a cartilage matrix alone was not sufficient to drive endochondral bone formation. Moreover, when CTECs were implanted orthotopically into critical-size cranial defects in rats, efficient bone formation was observed. We report previously undescribed ESC-based bone tissue engineering under controlled reproducible conditions. Furthermore, our data indicate that ESCs can also be used as a model system to study endochondral bone formation.

Critical Steps toward a tissue-engineered cartilage implant using embryonic stem cells.

Embryonic stem (ES) cells are a potential source for cartilage tissue engineering because they provide an unlimited supply of cells that can be differentiated into chondrocytes. So far, chondrogenic differentiation of both mouse and human ES cells has only been demonstrated in two-dimensional cultures, in pellet cultures, in a hydrogel, or on thin biomaterials. The next challenge will be to form cartilage on a load-bearing, clinically relevant-sized scaffold in vitro and in vivo, to regenerate defects in patients suffering from articular cartilage disorders. For a successful implant, cells have to be seeded efficiently and homogenously throughout the scaffold. Parameters investigated were the scaffold architecture, seeding method, and cellular condition. Seeding in a three-dimensional fiber-deposited (3DF) scaffold was more homogenous than in a compression-molded scaffold. The seeding efficiency on bare scaffolds was compromised by the absence of serum in the chondrogenic medium, but could be improved by combining the cells with a gel and subsequent injection into the 3DF scaffolds. However, the viability of the cells was unsatisfactory in the interior of the graft. Cell aggregates, the so-called embryoid bodies (EBs), were seeded with increased survival rate. Mouse ES cells readily underwent chondrogenic differentiation in vitro in pellets, on bare scaffolds, in Matrigel, and in agarose, both as single cells and in EBs. The differentiation protocol requires further improvement to achieve homogenous differentiation and abolish teratoma formation in vivo. We conclude that ES cells can be used as a cell source for cartilage tissue engineering, pending further optimization of the strategy.

Novel immunoglobulin-like transcripts in teleost fish encode polymorphic receptors with cytoplasmic ITAM or ITIM and a new structural Ig domain similar to the natural cytotoxicity receptor NKp44.

Members of the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) include a group of innate immune receptors located in the leukocyte receptor complex (LRC) and other small clusters such as the TREM/NKp44 cluster. These receptors are characterised by the presence of immunoglobulin domains, a stalk, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic region containing either an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) or are linked to an adapter molecule with an activation motif (ITAM) for downstream signalling. We have isolated two carp cDNA sequences encoding receptors in which the extracellular Ig domain structurally resembles the novel V-type Ig domain of NKp44. This is supported by a homology model. The cytoplasmic regions contain either an ITAM (Cyca-NILT1) or ITIMs (Cyca-NILT2). The tissue expression of these receptors is nearly identical, with the highest expression in the immunological organs. Peripheral blood leucocytes showed no detectable expression, but upon in vitro culture expressed NILT1, the activating receptor, and not the inhibitory NILT2 receptor. Southern blot analysis indicated that the NILT1 and NILT2 sequences belong to a multigene family. Analysis of the NILT Ig domain-encoding sequences amplified from both genomic DNA and cDNA revealed extensive haplotypic and allelic polymorphism. Database mining of the zebrafish genome identified several homologs on Chromosome 1, which also contains a cluster of class I major histocompatibility genes. This constellation is reminiscent of the TREM/NKp44 gene cluster and the HLA complex located on human Chromosome 6. The carp NILT genes form a unique cluster of innate immune receptors, which are highly polymorphic, and characterised by a new Ig structural subfamily and are distinct from the novel immune-type receptors (Nitrs) found in other fish species.