Using a group-oriented contingency to increase social interactions between children with autism and their peers. A preliminary analysis of corollary supportive behaviors.

The effects of a group-oriented contingency on the social and supportive interactions of three preschoolers with autism and their socially competent peers were examined. Children participated in daily manipulative play activities in groups of three (including one target child and two peers). A group reinforcement contingency increased all three target children's social interactions with peers (e.g., share, assistance, and play organizers) but produced few or no corollary supportive exchanges within the playgroups (e.g., one socially competent youngster tells another to "Ask [target child] to share the Lego toys with us"). After a withdrawal of treatment phase in which social interactions decreased to low levels, children were taught to direct supportive comments to other members of their playgroups. Following this brief training, the interdependent group contingency was reinstated to reinforce the share, assistance, and play organizer exchanges between the target children and peers. In addition to interacting with the target children, socially competent youngsters also used supportive prompts to facilitate the social exchanges between their remaining group members. Children's social and supportive interactions decreased and increased again during subsequent baseline and group contingency phases. These results are discussed with regard to the efficacy of group-oriented contingencies and the function of supportive peer behaviors.

The overtures of preschool social skill intervention agents. Differential rates, forms, and functions.

The purpose of this study was to examine the differential topographies and functions of social behaviors directed by normally developing preschoolers to their playmates with autism. Social interaction data from intervention phases of a study by Kohler, Strain, Hoyson, DeCesare, Donina, and Rapp were analyzed in three different ways. First, the frequency of four behaviors commonly included in social interaction training or assessment procedures (i.e., play organizer suggestions, share offers or requests, assistance offers or requests, and general statements) was examined. Second, the effects of each peer behavior on the immediate response of 3 children with autism were examined. Finally, the impact of each behavior that led to a positive response on the duration of subsequent target child-peer social interactions was examined. The four social behaviors had differential topographical and functional properties. Shares and play organizers occurred most frequently and generated the highest proportion of positive responses from all 3 children with autism. Conversely, assistance offers or requests occurred less often and received a lower percentage of positive responses. However, assistance behaviors consistently led to the longest social interactions. Implications of these results for future social skills training and research are discussed.

Effects of collateral peer supportive behaviors within the classwide peer tutoring program.

A classwide peer tutoring procedure was implemented in an urban elementary school classroom to improve students' spelling performance. Three students combined untrained or collateral tutoring behaviors with the core behaviors initially taught. To explore the function of these natural and spontaneous behaviors, a multielement single-subject experiment with replications was conducted. Results indicated that the additional tutoring behaviors increased (a) the academic response frequencies of 3 tutees and (b) the weekly spelling achievement of 1 target tutee. The remaining class members were successfully taught and continued to use these behaviors over the final 3 weeks of the school year. These findings are discussed with regard to academic instruction, natural communities of peer reinforcement, and the social validation of intervention procedures.

Effect of cholinergic stimulation of the medial septal area on the secretory properties of atrial myocardial fibers.

Adult male Wistar rats weighing 240-260 g were implanted with stainless steel guide cannulae into the medial septal area (MSA). Cholinergic stimulation of the MSA increased natriuresis (344.6 +/- 13.8 vs 22.2 +/- 2.1 microEq for the controls), the number of atrial specific granules (61.0 +/- 6.7 vs 43.8 +/- 3.5 granules/100 microns 2 sarcoplasma for the controls), and the number of electron-dense vesicles near the sarcolemma or appearing to undergo exocytotic extrusion (50.0 +/- 2.3 vs 21.4 +/- 5.7 vesicles/100 microns sarcolemma for the controls). It is not yet clear how cholinergic stimulation of the MSA changes the secretory characteristics of atrial myocardial fibers. However, the present study provides evidence that release of an atrial natriuretic factor may be controlled by the central nervous system (CNS). This may occur through the sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the heart or through the release of some substance produced by the CNS or produced at another site whose release is controlled by the CNS.

Effect of cholinergic stimulation of the medial septal area on the secretory properties of atrial myocardial fibers

Adult male Wistar rats weighing 240-260 g were implanted with stainless steel guide cannulae into the medial septal area (MSA). Cholinergic stimulation of the MSA increased natriuresis (344.6 + or - 13.8 vs 22.2 + or - 2.1 micronEq for the controls), the number of atrial specific granules (61.0 + or - 6.7 vs 43,8 + or - 3.5 granules/100 micron m**2 sarcoplasma for the controls), and the number of electron-dense vesicles near the sarcolemma or appearing to undergo exocytotic extrusion (50.0 + or - 2.3 vs 21.4 + or - 5.7 vesicles/100 micronm sarcolemma for the controls) It is not yet clear how cholinergic stimulation of the MSA changes the secretory characteristics of atrial myocardial fibers. However, the present study provides evidence that release of an atrial natriuretic factor may be controlled by the central nervous system (CNS). This may occur through the sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the heart or through the release of some substance produced by the CNS or produced at another site whose release is controlled by the CNS

Detection of histamine in human placental perfusate and the effect of histamine releasers.

Studies on full-term human placentas were conducted to determine whether the vasogenic actions of certain agents on perfused placental vasculature are due to histamine release. Compound 48/80 and morphine were selected because they liberate the autacoid via different mechanisms. Initially, a control effluent was collected prior to each drug challenge and again collected throughout the rise and fall in perfusion pressure. The drugs were given alone and in the presence of a 50 mcg dose of histamine free base (HFB) to assess the release of stored histamine and also to serve as a control. Following extraction in n-butanol and recovery in 0.1 N HCl, all effluents were fluoresced with o-phthalaldehyde and assayed for histamine content via spectrophotofluorometry. A baseline histamine level was discovered in the majority of placental effluents collected prior to the administration of any agent. No significant increases above this initial level occurred following treatment with compound 48/80 alone. However, small but significantly elevated amounts of histamine appeared in the placental effluent when compound 48/80 was given 10 minutes after the initial 50 mcg dose of HFB. This agent also caused a slight increase in placental perfusion pressure after each administration. Results obtained with morphine do not appear to support the hypothesis that significant amounts of histamine are released by this agent in the perfused human placenta.

A comparison of two intervention roles: peer monitor and point earner.

Two fifth-grade students' high levels of off-task and disruptive behavior decreased rapidly during an intervention in which they were appointed peer monitors or point earners. The children worked in dyads in which one child served as a peer monitor and the other child earned points from his or her monitor for good behavior. Points were accumulated as part of a group contingency. We introduced the two appointments in an independent math period and alternated the appointments across days. The peer monitor and point earner roles, when alternated on an every-other-day basis, were equally effective in reducing the students' inappropriate behavior. Furthermore, their behavior during intervention fell well within the range of inappropriate behavior levels exhibited by classmates. The speed with which both students completed their math problems increased during both appointments. The accuracy of their academic work, however, varied; one student improved slightly and the other student decreased slightly in accuracy.

Field replication of classwide peer tutoring.

We conducted a large-scale field replication study of classwide peer tutoring applied to spelling instruction (Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1984). Two hundred and eleven inner-city students in four schools participated during their first- and second-grade school years. The effects of classwide peer tutoring were compared to teacher instructional procedures and pretest probes using a group replication design (Barlow, Hayes, & Nelson, 1984). Analysis of group and individual results indicated that (a) both teacher instructional procedures and classwide peer tutoring were effective in increasing spelling performance above pretest levels, (b) peer tutoring produced statistically greater gains relative to the teachers' procedures for both low and high student groups formed on pretest levels, (c) these outcomes were representative of groups, classes, individuals, and years during the project, and (d) participant satisfaction with the program was generally high. A separate analysis of the social importance of treatment outcome revealed differential findings for low and high groups related to pretest levels. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Role reversals: an analysis of therapeutic effects achieved with disruptive boys during their appointments as peer monitors.

Three 7-year-old boys with histories of negative interactions were appointed to monitor individual classmates during daily noon recess. As monitors, the boys awarded points to their classmates for playing appropriately and, on rare occasions, withdrew a point for negative interactions. The three boys immediately decreased their own rates of negative interactions during the sessions in which they were appointed as monitors. Two of the boys concomitantly increased their rates of positive interactions. Their reductions in negative interactions were not maintained during reversals and did not clearly generalize to the morning or afternoon recess periods. Subsequent appointment of the boys as peer monitors during the morning recess produced similar improvements in their behavior. Results suggest that appointment to the role of peer monitor may itself function as an intervention.

Toward a technology of generalization: The identification of natural contingencies of reinforcement.

Applied behavior analysts have directed a growing effort towards the development of a technology for behavioral generalization and maintenance over the past decade. Among the list of potential generalization promoters thought to exist is the natural contingency of social reinforcement (i.e., a behavioral trap) for new behavior in its untrained form or setting, or over time. Although past researchers have noted a need to program for the generalization and maintenance of behavior change, the current understanding of behavioral traps precludes the use of these contingencies to support behavioral changes when interventions are not in operation. This article describes five forms of evidence useful for the identification and analysis of natural contingencies of reinforcement. Examples from the applied research literature are provided to illustrate the kinds of studies that would greatly enhance our knowledge of behavioral traps and improve our ability to understand and program the generalization of trained behaviors across diverse forms and settings, and over time.

Training prosocial behaviors to young children: an analysis of reciprocity with untrained peers.

We examined the effects of a social skills training package on the play behaviors of three young girls. Two children were taught to invite their peers to play and to use social amenities during their conversations with other children. A combined reversal and multiple baseline across responses design demonstrated that both children directed more social behaviors to their classroom peers after training and that these two children's play invitations were maintained in the later absence of experimental contingencies. In addition, both target children received a greater number of play invitations from their peers during the free play periods. In contrast, a third child's play invitations were not reciprocated by peers; her invitations subsequently decreased in rate after training was discontinued. An interdependent group contingency produced a reciprocal exchange of invitations between this child and her classroom peers. A reversal design demonstrated partial maintenance of subject-peer exchanges after the group intervention was discontinued. The results obtained with the three target children suggest that peer reciprocity may facilitate the maintenance of children's play invitations over time.