Natural infection of wild-born mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) with two different types of simian immunodeficiency virus.

We found a novel primate lentivirus in mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx). To clarify the evolutionary relationships and transmission patterns of human/simian immunodeficiency virus (HIV/SIV), we screened blood samples from 30 wild-born healthy Cameroonian mandrills. Five (16.7%) of them were seropositive for SIV. Three SIV strains were isolated from the five seropositive mandrills by cocultivation of their peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with PBMCs of rhesus macaques, a human T cell line (M8166), and/or a cynomolgus macaque T cell line (HSC-F). One of the newly isolated SIV strains was intravenously inoculated into two rhesus macaques and resulted in chronic infection. In the SIV-infected macaques at 45 weeks after inoculation, we observed a mild decline in the number of peripheral CD4(+) lymphocytes, lymphadenopathy, and blastic follicular dendritic cells with mild follicular hyperplasia in the peripheral lymph nodes. A phylogenetic analysis based on the pol sequence showed that the newly found SIVs from Cameroonian mandrills did not cluster with SIVmndGB1, which is the former representative strain of SIVmnd. The SIVmnds from Cameroon formed a new, independent lineage that branched before the root of the HIV-1/SIVcpz lineage with 996 of 1000 bootstrap replications. They clustered host specifically, and exhibited about 16.9% diversity at the level of nucleotide sequence among Cameroonian SIVmnd strains. These results indicate that the SIVmnds isolated in Cameroon are a novel type of SIVmnd and have infected Cameroonian mandrills for a long time. We therefore designated the Cameroonian SIVmnd as SIVmnd type 2 and redesignated SIVmndGB1 as SIVmnd type 1. To date, M. sphinx is the only primate species other than humans that is naturally infected with two different types of SIV.

Reevaluation of amino acid variability of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 envelope glycoprotein and prediction of new discontinuous epitopes.

To elucidate the evolutionary mechanisms of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 envelope glycoprotein at the single-site level, the degree of amino acid variation and the numbers of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitutions were examined in 186 nucleotide sequences for gp120 (subtype B). Analyses of amino acid variabilities showed that the level of variability was very different from site to site in both conserved (C1 to C5) and variable (V1 to V5) regions previously assigned. To examine the relative importance of positive and negative selection for each amino acid position, the numbers of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitutions that occurred at each codon position were estimated by taking phylogenetic relationships into account. Among the 414 codon positions examined, we identified 33 positions where nonsynonymous substitutions were significantly predominant. These positions where positive selection may be operating, which we call putative positive selection (PS) sites, were found not only in the variable loops but also in the conserved regions (C1 to C4). In particular, we found seven PS sites at the surface positions of the alpha-helix (positions 335 to 347 in the C3 region) in the opposite face for CD4 binding. Furthermore, two PS sites in the C2 region and four PS sites in the C4 region were detected in the same face of the protein. The PS sites found in the C2, C3, and C4 regions were separated in the amino acid sequence but close together in the three-dimensional structure. This observation suggests the existence of discontinuous epitopes in the protein's surface including this alpha-helix, although the antigenicity of this area has not been reported yet.

Natural infection of chimpanzees with new lentiviruses related to HIV-1/SIVcpz.

To determine newly identified lentiviruses, termed simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)cpz97CG4 and SIVcpz97CG6, from two wild-captured juvenile brother chimpanzees in the Republic of Congo, subgenomic pol (integrase, 288 bp), 5'tat/rev-env Cl (including vpu, 354 bp) and env (C2-C4, 544 bp) gene fragments were amplified and sequenced. The analysis revealed significantly discordant phylogenetic positions of SIVcpz97CG in each genomic region. In the trees derived from partial env sequences (V3), both SIVcpz strains clustered in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) subtype A. However, in the trees derived from partial pol (integrase) and 5'tat/rev-env C1 (including vpu) sequences, they clustered independently from any of the known HIV-1 subtypes. Especially, in the 5'tat/rev-vpu tree, they branched before the root of HIV-1 group M. These findings suggest that these Congolese SIVcpz genomes are mosaic, probably due to a recombinational event in the recent past, and it provides evidence for a rather recently occurring cross-species transmission between humans and chimpanzees.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 intergroup (M/O) recombination in cameroon.

Here we describe, for the first time, recombinants between two highly divergent major groups of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), M and O, within a Cameroonian woman infected with three different HIV-1 strains, a group O virus, a subtype D virus, and a recently reported IBNG (A/G)-like recombinant virus. Using nested extra-long PCR amplification, we sequenced from the pol region to the env region including accessory genes of the viral genome obtained from the patient's uncultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells and examined the phylogenetic position of each gene. Compared with sequential blood samples obtained in 1995 and 1996, there were multiple segmental exchanges between three HIV-1 strains (O, D, and IBNG) and all the recombinants appeared to be derived from a common M/O ancestor. Importantly, recombination between groups M and O occurred, even though the homology between these two groups is 69, 76, 68, and 55% in the gag, pol, vif-vpr, and env regions, respectively. Recombination between strains with such distant lineages may contribute substantially to generating new HIV-1 variants.

Genetic diversity of HIV-1 group M from Cameroon and Republic of Congo.

We analyzed 57 HIV-1 isolates from Cameroon and the Republic of Congo, with respect to the env C2V3 and/or the pol integrase regions. The results indicated that the topology of the pol tree correlated well with that of the env tree for four clusters of subtype D, F G and H, suggesting that these trees reflect the true evolution of the overall genome structures of these subtypes. However, of 22 Cameroonian isolates that were classified as subtype A based on env, 20 of them diverged in their pol sequence into two lineages that were completely different from the prototypical subtype A, tentatively designated as subtypes A1 and A2. The subtype A1 isolates (6 out of 22) were related in their env C2V3 regions with prototypical subtype A strain, but in their pol regions, they formed an independent cluster that diverged from known HIV-1 subtypes so far reported (except for subtypes I and J). The subtype A2 isolates (14 out of 22), which represent the major epidemic type of HIV-1 in Cameroon, clustered distinctly in both the env and pol trees with the recently described A/G mosaic strains from Nigeria and Djibouti. These two lineages were not spreading in the neighboring Republic of Congo.

Identification of regions in which positive selection may operate in S-RNase of Rosaceae: implication for S-allele-specific recognition sites in S-RNase.

A stylar S-RNase is associated with gametophytic self-incompatibility in the Rosaceae, Solanaceae, and Scrophulariaceae. This S-RNase is responsible for S-allele-specific recognition in the self-incompatible reaction, but how it functions in specific discrimination is not clear. Window analysis of the numbers of synonymous (dS) and non-synonymous (dN) substitutions in rosaceous S-RNases detected four regions with an excess of dN over dS in which positive selection may operate (PS regions). The topology of the secondary structure of the S-RNases predicted by the PHD method is very similar to that of fungal RNase Rh whose tertiary structure is known. When the sequences of S-RNases are aligned with the sequence of RNase Rh based on the predicted secondary structures, the four PS regions correspond to two surface sites on the tertiary structure of RNase Rh. These findings suggest that in S-RNases the PS regions also form two sites and are candidates for the recognition sites for S-allele-specific discrimination.