Health Care Provider Bias in Estimating the Health Literacy of Caregivers in a Pediatric Emergency Department.

BACKGROUND: Health literacy is a growing concern because of its effects on communication and health outcomes. One aspect of this communication is the ability of the health care provider to estimate the health literacy of a patient or their caregiver. The objectives of this study are to quantify misestimation of caregiver health literacy by providers and identify potential descriptive or demographic factors that might be related to those misestimations. METHODS: Providers were asked to perceive descriptive factors and estimate the health literacy of caregivers in a pediatric Emergency Department. Then, the health literacy of the caregiver was tested using the Short Assessment of Health Literacy, and cross-tabulated with provider estimates. RESULTS: Providers correctly estimated the health literacy of the caregivers 60% of the time, and misestimates were often underestimates (27.7%) rather than overestimates (12.3%). Providers overestimated the health literacy of 24.1% of fathers and only 9.8% of mothers (P = 0.012). They correctly estimated the health literacy of 63.9% of English-speaking caregivers compared with 30.6% of Spanish-speaking caregivers, and underestimated the health literacy of 50% of Spanish-speaking caregivers and 24.8% of English-speaking caregivers (P < 0.001). Providers correctly estimated the health literacy of 34.4% of racially and ethnically diverse caregivers compared with 71.5% of White/non-Hispanic caregivers. They underestimated the health literacy of 52.1% of these racially and ethnically diverse caregivers and 16.8% of White/non-Hispanic caregivers (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Providers often overestimate and underestimate the health literacy of parents in the pediatric emergency department. Misestimates are related to race, caregiver role, and language spoken by the caregiver. When providers misestimate health literacy, they may use words or phrases that are above or below the health literacy level of the caregiver. These results suggest a need for further health literacy research and interventions in provider education and clinical practice.

Developing a clinical research infrastructure embedded in an academic medicine center that equitably supports future clinician scientists.

Clinical research in academic medical centers can be difficult to conduct and meet enrollment goals. Students under-represented in medicine (URiM) are also under-represented in academic leadership positions and as physician-scientists but are critical to help solve health disparities. Barriers in pursuing medicine as a career may be high for URiM students, therefore it is important to create pre-medicine opportunities accessible to all students interested in healthcare careers. We describe an undergraduate clinical research platform, the Academic Associate (AcA) program, embedded in the medical system that supports clinical research for academic physician scientists and provides students equitable access to experiences and mentoring opportunities. Students have the opportunity of completing a Pediatric Clinical Research Minor (PCRM) degree. This program satisfies many pre-medicine opportunities for undergraduate students, including those URiM, and allows access to physician mentors and unique educational experiences for graduate school or employment. Since 2009, 820 students participated in the AcA program (17.5% URiM) and 235 students (18% URiM) completed the PCRM. Of the 820 students, 126 (10% URiM) students matriculated to medical school, 128 (11%URiM) to graduate school, and 85 (16.5% URiM) gained employment in biomedical research fields. Students in our program supported 57 publications and were top-enrollers for several multicentered studies. The AcA program is cost-effective and achieves a high level of success enrolling patients into clinical research. Additionally, the AcA program provides equitable access for students URiM to physician mentorship, pre-medical experiences, and an avenue to early immersion in academic medicine.

Communication Gaps Between Providers and Caregivers of Patients in a Pediatric Emergency Department.

Communication gaps between the healthcare team and caregivers of pediatric patients can result in negative consequences. This study aims to identify specific words and phrases used in a pediatric emergency department (ED) that are unclear or confusing to caregivers. Research assistants at the Primary Children's Hospital recorded caregivers' responses to the question, "What words or phrases have been used during this visit that are unclear or don't make sense to you?" Across all steps in the care process, 62 of 220 participants (28.2%) reported unclear words and phrases used by the healthcare team. Responses recorded after the discharge step had the highest proportion of communication problems, followed by the initial evaluation and then the update step (χ2 [2, N = 220] = 6.30, P = .043). Themes among responses included ED logistics, signs/symptoms, the diagnostic process, treatment/procedures, general confusion, and language barriers. These results provide feedback to pediatric emergency medicine providers about potential communication gaps and point to a need for further efforts to train providers in the practice of high-quality communication.

Variation in Computed Tomography Use for Evaluation of Head Injury in a Pediatric Emergency Department.

OBJECTIVES: Recent research has shown significant variation in rates of computed tomography (CT) use among pediatric hospital emergency departments (ED) for evaluation of head injured children. We examined the rates of CT use by individual ED attending physicians for evaluation of head injured children in a pediatric hospital ED. METHODS: We used an administrative database to identify children younger than 18 years evaluated for head injury from January 2011 through March 2013 at our children's hospital ED, staffed by pediatric emergency medicine (PEM) fellowship trained physicians and pediatricians. We excluded encounters with trauma team activation or previous head CT performed elsewhere. We excluded physicians whose patient volume was less than 1 standard deviation below the group mean. RESULTS: After exclusions, we evaluated 5340 encounters for head injury by 27 ED attending physicians. For individual physicians, CT rates ranged from 12.4% to 37.3%, with a mean group rate of 28.4%. Individual PEM physician CT rates ranged from 18.9% to 37.3%, versus 12.4% to 31.8% for pediatricians. Of the 1518 encounters in which CT was done, 128 (8.4%) had a traumatic brain injury on CT, and 125 (8.2%) had a simple skull fracture without traumatic brain injury on CT. Patient factors associated with CT use included age younger than 2 years, higher triage acuity, arrival time of 10:00 PM to 6:00 AM, hospital admission, and evaluation by a PEM physician. CONCLUSIONS: Physicians at our pediatric hospital ED varied in the use of CT for the evaluation of head-injured children.

Relative productivity of nurse practitioner and resident physician care models in the pediatric emergency department.

OBJECTIVES: Duty hour restrictions limit the use of resident physicians in pediatric emergency departments (PEDs). We sought to determine the relative clinical productivity of PED attending physicians working with residents compared with PED attending physicians working with nurse practitioners (NPs). METHODS: In a tertiary care PED with multiple care models (PED attending physicians with residents and/or fellows, PED attending physicians with NPs, PED attending physicians alone), we identified periods when care was provided concurrently and exclusively by a PED attending physician with 1 to 2 residents (resident pod) and a PED attending physician with 1 NP (NP pod). Billing records were reviewed to determine relative value units (RVUs) generated and patients seen by each PED attending physician. Emergency Severity Index (ESI) triage scores were used to compare patient acuities. RESULTS: The NP pods generated 5.35 RVUs per hour and the resident pods generated 4.35 RVUs per hour, with a significant difference of 1.00 RVUs per hour (95% confidence interval, 0.19-1.82). The NP pods saw 2.18 patients per hour, whereas the resident pods saw 1.90 patients per hour. This difference of 0.28 was not statistically significant (95% confidence interval, -0.07 to 0.62). Patient acuity was similar. Thirteen percent of the NP pod patients had the highest triage severity levels of ESI-1 and ESI-2, whereas 19% of the resident pod patients were ESI-1 and ESI-2 (P = 0.06). CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric emergency department attending physicians in an NP care model had greater clinical productivity, measured by RVUs, than PED attending physicians in a resident care model while treating similar patient populations.

Utilization of a pediatric observation unit for toxicologic ingestions.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to evaluate the efficacy and utilization of an observation unit (OU) for admission of pediatric patients after a toxicologic ingestion; compare the characteristics and outcomes of patients admitted to the pediatric OU, inpatient (IP) service, and intensive care unit (ICU) after ingestions using retrospective chart review; and attempt to identify factors associated with unplanned IP admission after an OU admission. METHODS: This was a retrospective chart review of children seen in the emergency department (ED) after potentially toxic suspected ingestions and then admitted to the OU, IP service, or ICU from June 2003 to September 2007. RESULTS: One thousand twenty-three children were seen in the ED for ingestions: 18% were admitted to the OU, 15% to the IP service service, and 6% to the ICU. Observation unit patients had less mental status changes reported and were less frequently given medications while in the ED. Eighty-one percent of OU patients were admitted with poison center recommendation. Ninety-four percent of OU patients were discharged within 24 hours, and less than half of IP service/ICU patients were discharged that quickly. No significant associations were found between specific historical and physical examination or laboratory characteristics in the ED and the need for unplanned IP admission. CONCLUSIONS: Observation unit patients admitted after ingestions were young, typically ingested substances found in the home, and required observation according to poison center recommendations. Ninety-four percent were able to be discharged home within 24 hours even after ingesting some of the most concerning substances such as central nervous system depressants, cardiac/antihypertension medications, hypoglycemics, and opiates. All OU patients did well without any adverse events reported. Many patients requiring prolonged observation after an ingestion, and who do not require ICU care, may be appropriate for OU management. This study suggests a potential underutilization of observation units in this setting.

Outpatient management of patients with bronchiolitis discharged home on oxygen: a survey of general pediatricians.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the experience of general pediatricians in weaning bronchiolitis patients, treated as outpatients, from oxygen. METHODS: The authors surveyed members of the American Academy of Pediatrics' Council on Community Pediatrics regarding management of outpatient oxygen for bronchiolitis. RESULTS: The survey had 214 (28.4%) responses from pediatricians, of whom 172 (80.3%) practiced outpatient pediatrics. Among those, 27 (15.7%) cared for bronchiolitis patients discharged on oxygen. Pediatricians managing home oxygen practiced at higher altitude (5000 vs 339 ft, P < .001). No clear weaning protocol was reported. Over half (61.5%) of the pediatricians managing home oxygen acknowledged difficulty in deciding when to stop oxygen. A median of 2 (interquartile range [IQR] = 2-2) outpatient visits and 6 (IQR = 4-7) outpatient days on home oxygen were needed prior to oxygen discontinuation. CONCLUSION: Pediatricians are not routinely managing home oxygen for hypoxic bronchiolitis patients. Variable weaning process, difficulties in determining oxygen stoppage, multiple follow-up visits, and prolonged home oxygen usage highlight the need to evaluate the impact of this emerging practice.

Barriers to discharge from a 24-hour observation unit for children with bronchiolitis.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine physician-identified barriers to discharge of patients with bronchiolitis from a 24-hour emergency department-based observation unit. METHODS: Patients 3 to 24 months of age with a diagnosis of bronchiolitis were prospectively enrolled from January through April 2008. Patients were treated according to a standard hospital-wide bronchiolitis pathway that included an option for discharge on home oxygen. Treating physicians recorded barriers to discharge in those not sent home within 24 hours. The primary outcome was successful discharge within 24 hours; we analyzed barriers to such discharges. RESULTS: Fifty-five patients were enrolled in the study. Discharge within 24 hours failed in 30 patients (55%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 42%-67%). Among the 25 discharged patients, 6 (24%) went home on supplemental oxygen without adverse outcomes or readmission. Hypoxia was the most commonly identified barrier to discharge (n = 22, 73%). Of the 22 cases where hypoxia was a barrier, 18 (82%) also noted the need for deep nasal suctioning; 12 (55%), parental discomfort; 12 (55%), respiratory distress; 10 (46%), poor feeding; and 4 (18%), MD discomfort. CONCLUSIONS: Hypoxia was the most common barrier to discharge within 24 hours for patients with bronchiolitis, and a common cofactor when other barriers were identified. Research on home oxygen, the use of deep nasal suctioning, and parental discomfort with early discharge may be useful in reducing the need for inpatient care for bronchiolitis.

Pediatric closed head injuries treated in an observation unit.

BACKGROUND: Closed head injury (CHI) is common in childhood and frequently results in hospital admission for observation and treatment. Observation units (OUs) have shown significant benefits for patients and physicians. At our institution, a level 1 pediatric trauma center, patients with CHI are often admitted to an OU for up to 24 hours of observation and treatment. STUDY OBJECTIVES: To describe characteristics of patients with a CHI admitted to a pediatric OU and to identify demographic, historical, clinical, and radiographic factors associated with the need for unplanned inpatient admission (UIA) after OU management. METHODS: Retrospective cohort review of all OU admissions for CHI at Primary Children's Medical Center (PCMC) from August 1999 through July 2001. Data collected included age, gender, mechanism of injury, presenting symptoms, physical examination findings, head computed tomography (CT) results, diagnosis, length of stay, outcome of the injury, and need for UIA. RESULTS: During the study period, 827 patients were seen in the ED for CHI. Two hundred eighty-five patients (34%) were admitted to the OU, 273 (33%) were admitted to an inpatient service, and 269 (33%) were discharged home. OU patients had a median age of 5.2 years, ranging from 2 weeks to 17 years. Sixty-one percent were male. The median admission length of stay was 13 hours. Common mechanisms of injury included: falls (60%), motor vehicle accidents (12%), bicycle accidents (10%), impacts from objects (9%), auto-pedestrian accidents (4.6%), and snow-related accidents (4.6%). Presenting symptoms in the ED included vomiting (39%), loss of consciousness (26%), amnesia to event (19%), persistent amnesia (5%), and seizures (4%). Physical examination findings noted in the ED included altered mental status (45%), facial abnormalities (43%), scalp abnormalities (38%), and neurologic deficits (9%). Two hundred eighty patients (98%) admitted to the OU had a head CT performed. Skull fractures were present in 109 patients (39%) and intracranial pathology (ie, epidural hematoma, subdural hematoma, or intraparenchymal contusion) was present in 38 patients (13%). Only 13 patients (5%) required admission to an inpatient service from the OU for the following reasons: continued need for intravenous (IV) fluids (n = 5), venous thrombosis (n = 2), persistent CSF leakage (n = 3), decreased level of consciousness (n = 1), pain management (n = 1), and clearing of the patient's cervical spine (n = 1). No patient deteriorated or required neurosurgery. Patients with basilar skull fractures, a head laceration (scalp or facial), and patients that needed IV fluids in the ED were more likely to need inpatient admission after a 24-hour observation stay. Logistic regression analysis identified basilar skull fractures (OR 11.61), face/scalp lacerations (OR 7.52), and the need for ED IV fluid administration (OR 4.26) to be associated with UIA. Most children with these findings were successfully discharged within 24 hours, however. Age, sex, loss of consciousness, seizure, vomiting, amnesia, altered mental status, neurologic deficits, intracranial pathology, and skull fractures (aside from basilar skull fractures) were not related to UIA. CONCLUSION: The vast majority (96%) of pediatric OU patients with CHI such as small intracranial hematomas, skull fractures, and concussions were discharged safely within 24 hours without serious complications. The presence of a basilar skull fracture, head laceration, and the need for ED IV fluids were associated with increased risk of UIA. OU admission is an efficient and effective management setting for children with stable intracranial pathology, skull fractures, and concussions.

Children with asthma admitted to a pediatric observation unit.

OBJECTIVE: Observation units (OUs) serve patients who require more evaluation or treatment than possible during an emergency department visit and who are anticipated to stay in the hospital for a short defined period. Asthma is a common admission diagnosis in a pediatric OU. Our main objective was to identify clinical factors associated with failure to discharge a child with asthma from our OU within 24 hours. METHODS: Retrospective chart review at a tertiary care children's hospital. Participants were children 2 years or older with asthma admitted from the emergency department to the OU during August 1999 to August 2001. The OU-discharged group comprised those successfully discharged from the OU within 24 hours. The unplanned inpatient admission group comprised those subsequently admitted from the OU to a traditional inpatient ward or those readmitted to the hospital within 48 hours of OU discharge. RESULTS: One hundred sixty-one children aged 2 to 20 years (median 4.0; 63% boys) met inclusion criteria; 40 patients (25%) required unplanned inpatient admission. In a multiple logistic regression model, 3 factors were associated with need for unplanned inpatient admission: female sex (adjusted odds ratio, 2.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-6.4; P = 0.03), temperature 38.5 degrees C or higher (adjusted odds ratio, 6.1; 95% confidence interval, 1.6-23.5; P < 0.01), and need for supplemental oxygen at the end of emergency department management (adjusted odds ratio, 5; 95% confidence interval, 1.7-15.1; P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Many children with asthma can be admitted to a pediatric OU and discharged safely within 24 hours. Prospective studies are needed to confirm our findings and to identify other factors predictive of unplanned inpatient admission.

Physician satisfaction with a pediatric observation unit administered by pediatric emergency medicine physicians.

OBJECTIVES: Observation units (OUs) are widely used to care for adults, but little is published about their use in pediatrics. During the planning stages of our pediatric OU, community primary medical doctors (PMDs) expressed concerns about not admitting and managing their own patients in this unit controlled by pediatric emergency physicians. This study surveyed PMDs to determine their satisfaction with the pediatric OU two and a half years after opening. METHODS: A satisfaction survey was mailed to pediatricians, family practitioners, and pediatric subspecialists whose patients had been admitted to the study pediatric OU from August 1999 to January 2002. A Likert scale ranging 1 to 4 was used to measure satisfaction in 4 areas. In addition, there were questions regarding the utility of the OU for treatment of common pediatric illnesses. RESULTS: 198 of 248 (80%) surveys were returned. Pediatricians (64%) and family practitioners (23%) were represented most often. Fifty-three percent of PMD respondents had 10 or more patients admitted during the study period. Median satisfaction scores were 4 (most satisfied) in all areas measured. Over 60% of physicians surveyed felt that the OU was useful in the treatment of dehydration, gastroenteritis, reactive airway disease, and bronchiolitis. CONCLUSIONS: The model of an ED-controlled pediatric observation unit received high satisfaction ratings in all areas by community and subspecialty physicians two and a half years after opening. The initial reservations voiced by community physicians have not resurfaced.

Propofol sedation by emergency physicians for elective pediatric outpatient procedures.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: We describe the efficacy of propofol sedation administered by pediatric emergency physicians to facilitate painful outpatient procedures. METHODS: By using a protocol for patients receiving propofol sedation in an emergency department-affiliated short-stay unit, a prospective, consecutive case series was performed from January to September 2000. Patients were prescheduled, underwent a medical evaluation, and met fasting requirements. A sedation team was present throughout the procedure. All patients received supplemental oxygen. Sedation depth and vital signs were monitored while propofol was manually titrated to the desired level of sedation. RESULTS: There were 291 separate sedation events in 87 patients. No patient had more than 1 sedation event per day. Median patient age was 6 years; 57% were male patients and 72% were oncology patients. Many children required more than 1 procedure per encounter. Most commonly performed procedures included lumbar puncture (43%), intrathecal chemotherapy administration (31%), bone marrow aspiration (19%), and bone biopsy (3%). Median total propofol dose was 3.5 mg/kg. Median systolic and diastolic blood pressures were lowered 22 mm Hg (range 0 to 65 mm Hg) and 21 mm Hg (range 0 to 62 mm Hg), respectively. Partial airway obstruction requiring brief jaw-thrust maneuver was noted for 4% of patient sedations, whereas transient apnea requiring bag-valve-mask ventilation occurred in 1% of patient sedations. All procedures were successfully completed. Median procedure duration was 13 minutes, median sedation duration was 22 minutes, and median total time in the short stay unit was 40 minutes. CONCLUSION: Propofol sedation administered by emergency physicians safely facilitated short painful procedures in children under conditions studied, with rapid recovery.