Neuronal Calcium Sensor 1 Has Two Variants with Distinct Calcium Binding Characteristics.

Neuronal calcium sensor-1 (NCS-1 Var1) is a calcium-binding protein expressed in most tissues. We examined a poorly characterized variant of NCS-1 (Var2), identified only in humans where the N-terminal 22 amino acid residues of native NCS-1(MGKSNSKLKPEVVEELTRKTY) were replaced with 4 different residues (MATI). Because alterations in the level of expression of NCS-1 Var1 and the expression of NCS-1 variants have been correlated with several neurological diseases, the relative expression and functional role of NCS-1 Var2 was examined. We found that NCS-1 Var2 mRNA levels are not found in mouse tissues and are expressed at levels ~1000-fold lower than NCS-1 Var1 in three different human cell lines (SHSY5Y, HEK293, MB231). Protein expression of both variants was only identified in cell lines overexpressing exogenous NCS-1 Var2. The calcium binding affinity is ~100 times weaker in purified NCS-1 Var2 than NCS-1 Var1. Because truncation of NCS-1 Var1 has been linked to functional changes in neurons, we determined whether the differing properties of the NCS-1 variants could potentially contribute to the altered cell function. In contrast to previous reports showing that overexpression of NCS-1 Var1 increases calcium-dependent processes, functional differences in cells overexpressing NCS-1 Var2 were undetectable in assays for cell growth, cell death and drug (paclitaxel) potency. Our results suggest that NCS-1 Var1 is the primary functional version of NCS-1.

Development of a FLIPR assay for the simultaneous identification of MrgD agonists and antagonists from a single screen.

MrgD, a member of the Mas-related gene family, is expressed exclusively in small diameter IB4(+) neurons in the dorsal root ganglion. This unique expression pattern, the presence of a single copy of MrgD in rodents and humans, and the identification of a putative ligand, beta-alanine, make it an experimentally attractive therapeutic target for pain with limited likelihood of side effects. We have devised a high throughput calcium mobilization assay that enables identification of both agonists and antagonists from a single screen for MrgD. Screening of the Library of Pharmacologically Active Compounds (LOPAC) validated this assay approach, and we identified both agonists and antagonists active at micromolar concentrations in MrgD expressing but not in parental CHO-DUKX cell line. Further characterization was performed using a subset of these screening hits. Our results demonstrated that the dual agonist/antagonist assay format is feasible and likely can be extended to most GPCRs with known agonist.

Purinergic receptor-mediated morphological changes in microglia are transient and independent from inflammatory cytokine release.

Microglia are commonly described as existing in resting or active states based on morphology or level of cytokine production. Extracellular ATP is a physiologically-relevant activator of microglia, which express a number of purinergic receptors. As P2Y(12) has been linked to chemotaxis, we used a panel of purinergic compounds to understand the role of ATP receptors in morphological transformation and correlate this with TNFalpha production. We quantified activation of cultured microglia with LPS or purinergic receptor agonists by using automated image analysis of cell morphology and CD11b expression and correlated this with TNFalpha release measured by ELISA. Treatment with both ATP and the P2Y(12) receptor agonist, 2-methylthio adenosine diphosphate (2MeSADP), caused a transient increase in CD11b expression (EC(50)=1.2 microM and 187 nM, respectively) and a reduction in process count that reversed within 90 min later. These changes were not accompanied by the release of TNFalpha. Forskolin, IBMX, and pertussis toxin inhibited these changes, but the PLC inhibitor, U73122, did not. 2MeSAMP blocked the ATP response, while AP4A blocked the 2MeSADP response, implicating P2Y(12/13). Microglia activation by LPS also caused an increase in CD11b expression and a reduction in process count; however, in contrast to activation by ATP, morphological transformation was accompanied by a concentration-dependent increase in TNFalpha secretion These data demonstrate that morphological transformation and TNFalpha release are separable events mediated by different, or non-convergent pathways and that although ATP can initiate morphological changes, additional factors are required to maintain activation over sustained periods.

NR2 subunits and NMDA receptors on lamina II inhibitory and excitatory interneurons of the mouse dorsal horn.

BACKGROUND: NMDA receptors expressed by spinal cord neurons in the superficial dorsal horn are involved in the development of chronic pain associated with inflammation and nerve injury. The superficial dorsal horn has a complex and still poorly understood circuitry that is mainly populated by inhibitory and excitatory interneurons. Little is known about how NMDA receptor subunit composition, and therefore pharmacology and voltage dependence, varies with neuronal cell type. NMDA receptors are typically composed of two NR1 subunits and two of four NR2 subunits, NR2A-2D. We took advantage of the differences in Mg2+ sensitivity of the NMDA receptor subtypes together with subtype preferring antagonists to identify the NR2 subunit composition of NMDA receptors expressed on lamina II inhibitory and excitatory interneurons. To distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory interneurons, we used transgenic mice expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein driven by the GAD67 promoter. RESULTS: Analysis of conductance ratio and selective antagonists showed that lamina II GABAergic interneurons express both the NR2A/B containing Mg2+ sensitive receptors and the NR2C/D containing NMDA receptors with less Mg2+ sensitivity. In contrast, excitatory lamina II interneurons express primarily NR2A/B containing receptors. Despite this clear difference in NMDA receptor subunit expression in the two neuronal populations, focally stimulated synaptic input is mediated exclusively by NR2A and 2B containing receptors in both neuronal populations. CONCLUSIONS: Stronger expression of NMDA receptors with NR2C/D subunits by inhibitory interneurons compared to excitatory interneurons may provide a mechanism to selectively increase activity of inhibitory neurons during intense excitatory drive that can provide inhibitory feedback.

Genetic and functional analysis of human P2X5 reveals a distinct pattern of exon 10 polymorphism with predominant expression of the nonfunctional receptor isoform.

P2X5 is a member of the P2X family of ATP-gated nonselective cation channels, which exist as trimeric assemblies. P2X5 is believed to trimerize with another member of this family, P2X1. We investigated the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at the 3' splice site of exon 10 of the human P2X5 gene. As reported previously, presence of a T at the SNP location results in inclusion of exon 10 in the mature transcript, whereas exon 10 is excluded when a G is present at this location. Our genotyping of human DNA samples reveals predominance of the G-bearing allele, which was exclusively present in DNA samples from white American, Middle Eastern, and Chinese donors. Samples from African American donors were polymorphic, with the G allele more frequent. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis of lymphocytes demonstrated a 100% positive correlation between genotype and P2X5 transcript. Immunostaining of P2X1/P2X5 stably coexpressing cell lines showed full-length P2X5 to be expressed at the cell surface and the exon 10-deleted isoform to be cytoplasmic. Fluorometric imaging-based pharmacological characterization indicated a ligand-dependent increase in intracellular calcium in 1321N1 astrocytoma cells transiently expressing full-length P2X5 but not the exon 10-deleted isoform. Likewise, electrophysiological analysis showed robust ATP-evoked currents when full-length but not the exon 10-deleted isoform of P2X5 was expressed. Taken together, our findings indicate that most humans express only a nonfunctional isoform of P2X5, which is in stark contrast to what is seen in other vertebrate species in which P2X5 has been studied, from which only the full-length isoform is known.

A novel high-throughput screening assay for HCN channel blocker using membrane potential-sensitive dye and FLIPR.

Hyperpolarization-activated cation nonselective (HCN) channels represent an interesting group of targets for drug development. In this study, the authors report the development of a novel membrane potential-sensitive dye (MPSD) assay for HCN channel modulators that has been miniaturized into 384-well fluorescent imaging plate reader (FLIPR) high-throughput screening (HTS) format. When optimized (by cell plating density, plate type, cell recovery from cryopreservation), the well-to-well signal variability was low, with a Z' = 0.73 and coefficient of variation = 6.4%, whereas the MPSD fluorescence signal amplitude was -23,700 +/- 1500 FLIPR(3) relative fluorescence units (a linear relationship was found between HCN1 MPSD fluorescence signal and the cell plating density) and was completely blocked by 30 microM ZD7288. The assay tolerated up to 1% DMSO, inclusion of which did not significantly change the signal kinetics or amplitude. A single-concentration screening of an ion channel-focused library composed of 4855 compounds resulted in 89 HCN1 blocker hits, 51 of which were subsequently analyzed with an 8-point concentration-response analysis on the IonWorks HT electrophysiology platform. The correlation between MPSD and the electrophysiology assay was moderate, as shown by the linear regression analysis (r(2) = 0.56) between the respective IC(50)s obtained using these 2 assays. The reported HTS-compatible HCN channel blocker assay can serve as a tool in drug discovery in the pursuit of HCN channel isoform-selective small molecules that could be used in the development of clinically relevant compounds.

Functional identification of NR2 subunits contributing to NMDA receptors on substance P receptor-expressing dorsal horn neurons.

NMDA receptors are important elements in pain signaling in the spinal cord dorsal horn. They are heterotetramers typically composed of two NR1 and two of four NR2 subunits: NR2A-2D. Mice lacking specific NR2 subunits show deficits in pain transmission yet subunit location in the spinal cord remains unclear. We have combined electrophysiological and pharmacological approaches to investigate the composition of functional NMDA receptors expressed by lamina I, substance P receptor-expressing (NK1R+) neurons, as well as NK1R- neurons. Under low Mg2+ conditions (100 microM), the conductance of NMDA receptors at -90 mV (g(-90 mV)) with NR2A or NR2B subunits (NR2A/B) is low compared to conductance measured at the membrane potential where the inward current is maximal or maximal inward current (MIC) (ratio of approximately 0.07 calculated from Kuner and Schoepfer, 1996). For NR2C or NR2D subunits (NR2C/D), the ratio is higher (ratio approximately 0.4). NK1R+ and NK1R- neurons express NMDA receptors that give ratios approximately 0.28 and 0.16, respectively, suggesting both types of subunits are present in both populations of neurons, with NK1R+ neurons expressing a higher percentage of NR2C/D type NMDA receptors. This was confirmed using EAB318, an NR2A/B preferring antagonist, and UBP141, a mildly selective NR2C/D antagonist to increase and decrease the g(-90 mV)/g(MIC) ratios in both subpopulations of neurons.

Identification of critical amino acid residues for human iNOS functional activity.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a short-lived signaling molecule that mediates a variety of biological functions, including vascular homeostasis, neurotransmission, antimicrobial defense and antitumor activities. Three known NOS isoforms (eNOS, nNOS and iNOS) have been cloned and sequenced. Here, we show that upon expression in Escherichia coli using a novel expression vector, an iNOS sequence containing three mutations (A805D, F831S and L832P) within the iNOS reductase domain produced very little functionally active iNOS protein compared to the wild type (wt) iNOS. Each of these point mutations also was individually constructed into the wt iNOS sequence. The activity of the iNOS protein containing the A805D mutation was comparable to wt, while a drastic reduction in iNOS activity was observed for the F831S and L832P mutants. A comparison of the molecular models of the reductase domain of the wt and mutant iNOS revealed a reduced core packing density for the F831S and L832P mutations compared to wt. In addition, the modeling also suggests altered hydrogen bonding, van der Waals and hydrophobic interactions of these mutants.

A modified method for PCR-directed gene synthesis from large number of overlapping oligodeoxyribonucleotides.

Here we report an improved, reproducible, simple, rapid, and cost-effective PCR-based DNA synthesis method using short (25-40 bp) overlapping oligodeoxyribonucleotides (oligos). The method involves two steps; (1) assembly of multiple/overlapping oligos by PCR to generate the template DNA and (2) amplification of the template DNA sequence with the two outermost oligos as primers. We have tested this method by synthesizing approximately 35 genes ranging in size between 300 bp and 1700 bp and G+C content from moderate (30%) to high (65%). In addition, we used the method to introduce 29 mutations simultaneously into a single gene. Key to the success of this method is the use of optimized oligo concentrations and the type of DNA polymerase used. This simplified and highly reproducible method is expected to be beneficial for the synthesis of a wide variety of genes.

MrgD activation inhibits KCNQ/M-currents and contributes to enhanced neuronal excitability.

The recently identified Mas-related gene (Mrg) family of G-protein-coupled receptors is expressed almost exclusively in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. The expression of one family member, MrgD, is even further confined to IB4+, nonpeptidergic, small-diameter nociceptors. Although the functional consequences of MrgD activation are not known, this expression profile provides intriguing potential for a role in pain sensation or modulation. In a recombinant cell line, we first assessed the functional significance of MrgD activation by coexpressing MrgD with the KCNQ2/3 potassium channel, a channel implicated in pain. Whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings revealed that bath application of the ligand for MrgD, beta-alanine, resulted in robust inhibition of KCNQ2/3 activity. Pharmacological blockade of G(i/o) and phospholipase C signaling revealed a partial and complete block of the response, respectively. We extended these observations to dissociated DRG neuron cultures by examining MrgD modulation of M-currents (carried primarily by KCNQ2/3). Here too, beta-alanine-induced activation of endogenous MrgD inhibited M-currents, but primarily via a pertussis toxin-sensitive pathway. Finally, we assessed the consequence of beta-alanine-induced activation of MrgD in phasic neurons. Phasic neurons that fired a single action potential (AP) before beta-alanine application fired multiple APs during beta-alanine exposure. In sum, we provide evidence for a novel interaction between MrgD and KCNQ/M-type potassium channels that contributes to an increase in excitability of DRG neurons and thus may enhance the signaling of primary afferent nociceptive neurons.

Direct inhibition of Ih by analgesic loperamide in rat DRG neurons.

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are responsible for the functional hyperpolarization-activated current (I(h)) in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, playing an important role in pain processing. We found that the known analgesic loperamide inhibited I(h) channels in rat DRG neurons. Loperamide blocked I(h) in a concentration-dependent manner, with an IC(50) = 4.9 +/- 0.6 and 11.0 +/- 0.5 microM for large- and small-diameter neurons, respectively. Loperamide-induced I(h) inhibition was unrelated to the activation of opioid receptors and was reversible, voltage-dependent, use-independent, and was associated with a negative shift of V(1/2) for I(h) steady-state activation. Loperamide block of I(h) was voltage-dependent, gradually decreasing at more hyperpolarized membrane voltages from 89% at -60 mV to 4% at -120 mV in the presence of 3.7 microM loperamide. The voltage sensitivity of block can be explained by a loperamide-induced shift in the steady-state activation of I(h). Inclusion of 10 microM loperamide into the recording pipette did not affect I(h) voltage for half-maximal activation, activation kinetics, and the peak current amplitude, whereas concurrent application of equimolar external loperamide produced a rapid, reversible I(h) inhibition. The observed loperamide-induced I(h) inhibition was not caused by the activation of peripheral opioid receptors because the broad-spectrum opioid receptor antagonist naloxone did not reverse I(h) inhibition. Therefore we suggest that loperamide inhibits I(h) by direct binding to the extracellular region of the channel. Because I(h) channels are involved in pain processing, loperamide-induced inhibition of I(h) channels could provide an additional molecular mechanism for its analgesic action.