Does Type of Residential Housing Matter for Depressive Symptoms in the Aftermath of a Disaster? Insights From the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami.

The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami resulted in widespread property destruction and over 250,000 displaced residents. We sought to examine whether the type of housing arrangement available to the affected victims was associated with a differential incidence of depressive symptoms. In this prospective cohort study, which comprised participants aged ≥65 years from Iwanuma as a part of the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study, we had information about the residents' mental health both before the disaster in 2010 and 2.5 years afterward. The Geriatric Depression Scale was used. Type of accommodation after the disaster was divided into 5 categories: no move, prefabricated housing (temporary housing), existing private accommodations (temporary apartment), newly established housing, and other. Poisson regression analysis was adopted, with and without multiple imputation. Among the 2,242 participants, 16.2% reported depressive symptoms at follow-up. The adjusted rate ratio for depressive symptoms among persons moving into prefabricated housing, compared with those who did not, was 2.07 (95% confidence interval: 1.45, 2.94). Moving into existing private accommodations or other types of accommodations was not associated with depression. The relationship between living environment and long-term mental health should be considered for disaster recovery planning.

Family planning practice and predictors of risk of inconsistent condom use among HIV-positive women on anti-retroviral therapy in Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: In Cambodia, while anti-retroviral therapy (ART) services are increasingly available, the unmet needs of family planning among general population are high. These facts raise concern on possible exposure of many HIV-positive women on ART to the potential risk of unintended pregnancy. This study aimed to clarify family planning practices in Cambodia and determine predictors of risk of inconsistent condom use among women on ART. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey with a structured questionnaire was conducted at five government-run health centers in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, from June to September, 2012. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to identify predictors of risk of inconsistent condom use among regular users of contraceptive methods. RESULTS: Of 408 respondents, 40, 17 and 10 used the pill, IUD, and injection, respectively, while 193 used condoms. 374 were not planning to have a child. Among 238 sexually active women who were not planning to have a baby, 59 were exposed to the risk of unintended pregnancy. Multivariate logistic regression analysis that did not include variables related to partners identified "seeking family planning information" (adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 2.6, 95% confidence intervals (95% CI): 1.1-6.2), awareness of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) (AOR: 4.7, 95% CI: 1.9-11.6) and "having a son" (AOR: 2.0, 95% CI: 1.1-3.9) were significant predictors of inconsistent condom use. Another model that included all variables identified "able to ask a partner to use condom at every sexual intercourse" was the only predictor (AOR: 23.7, 95% CI: 5.8-97.6). CONCLUSIONS: About one-quarter of women on ART are at risk to unintended pregnancy although most do not plan to get pregnant. Furthermore, women on ART could be more empowered through improvement of communication and negotiation skills with partners to demand the use of condom during sexual intercourse. The use of other contraceptive methods that do not need partner involvement should be promoted.

Can Japan Contribute to the Post Millennium Development Goals? Making Human Security Mainstream through the TICAD Process.

In 2013, the fifth Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD V) will be hosted by the Japanese government. TICAD, which has been held every five years, has played a catalytic role in African policy dialogue and a leading role in promoting the human security approach (HSA). We review the development of the HSA in the TICAD dialogue on health agendas and recommend TICAD's role in the integration of the HSA beyond the 2015 agenda. While health was not the main agenda in TICAD I and II, the importance of primary health care, and the development of regional health systems was noted in TICAD III. In 2008, when Japan hosted both the G8 summit and TICAD IV, the Takemi Working Group developed strong momentum for health in Africa. Their policy dialogues on global health in Sub-Saharan Africa incubated several recommendations highlighting HSA and health system strengthening (HSS). HSA is relevant to HSS because it focuses on individuals and communities. It has two mutually reinforcing strategies, a top-down approach by central or local governments (protection) and a bottom-up approach by individuals and communities (empowerment). The "Yokohama Action Plan," which promotes HSA was welcomed by the TICAD IV member countries. Universal health coverage (UHC) is a major candidate for the post-2015 agenda recommended by the World Health Organization. We expect UHC to provide a more balanced approach between specific disease focus and system-based solutions. Japan's global health policy is coherent with HSA because human security can be the basis of UHC-compatible HSS.

False beliefs about ART effectiveness, side effects and the consequences of non-retention and non-adherence among ART patients in Livingstone, Zambia.

Beliefs about antiretroviral treatment (ART) are crucial for treatment success but not well documented in sub-Sahara African countries. We studied the frequency of false beliefs about ART in 389 ART patients in Livingstone, Zambia. Despite intensive pre-ART counseling, we find that more than half of the patients hold at least one false belief about ART effectiveness, side effects, or the consequences of ART non-retention or non-adherence. Commonly held false beliefs-e.g., pastors can cure HIV infection through prayer and ART can be stopped without harmful effects while taking immune-boosting herbs-are likely to decrease ART adherence and retention.

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) during the early months of treatment in rural Zambia: influence of demographic characteristics and social surroundings of patients.

BACKGROUND: Around 70% of those living with HIV in need of treatment accessed antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Zambia by 2009. However, sustaining high levels of adherence to ART is a challenge. This study aimed to identify the predictive factors associated with ART adherence during the early months of treatment in rural Zambia. METHODS: This is a field based observational longitudinal study in Mumbwa district, which is located 150 km west of Lusaka, the capital of Zambia. Treatment naive patients aged over 15 years, who initiated treatment during September-November 2010, were enrolled. Patients were interviewed at the initiation and six weeks later. The treatment adherence was measured according to self-reporting by the patients. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to identify the predictive factors associated with the adherence. RESULTS: Of 157 patients, 59.9% were fully adherent to the treatment six weeks after starting ART. According to the multivariable analysis, full adherence was associated with being female [Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR), 3.3; 95% Confidence interval (CI), 1.2-8.9], having a spouse who were also on ART (AOR, 4.4; 95% CI, 1.5-13.1), and experience of food insufficiency in the previous 30 days (AOR, 5.0; 95% CI, 1.8-13.8). Some of the most common reasons for missed doses were long distance to health facilities (n = 21, 53.8%), food insufficiency (n = 20, 51.3%), and being busy with other activities such as work (n = 15, 38.5%). CONCLUSIONS: The treatment adherence continues to be a significant challenge in rural Zambia. Social supports from spouses and people on ART could facilitate their treatment adherence. This is likely to require attention by ART services in the future, focusing on different social influences on male and female in rural Zambia. In addition, poverty reduction strategies may help to reinforce adherence to ART and could mitigate the influence of HIV infection for poor patients and those who fall into poverty after starting ART.

Willingness to undergo HIV testing among factory workers in Surabaya, Indonesia.

The objective of this study is to investigate workers' perceptions of HIV testing in the workplace in Indonesia. In a cross-sectional study, we used a self-administered questionnaire in Surabaya, Indonesia. A convenient sample of 536 workers was chosen from two factories with similar sample characteristics from March through June 2008. Of these workers, 433 (response rate: 80.8%) answered questions about their willingness to undergo HIV testing. More than 40% of workers were willing to undergo HIV testing. Not knowing where to get tested (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.40, confidence interval [CI] = 0.18-0.89) and not feeling the need to be tested for HIV (AOR = 0.02, CI = 0.01-0.04) were negatively associated with willingness to undergo HIV testing. HIV prevention in the workplace needs to reach out to individuals who are not willing to undergo HIV testing - workers unaware of where to get tested for HIV and not feeling the need to get tested - through education, information, and communication in the workplace in light of the stigma and discrimination associated with HIV. High-impact voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) strategies need to be quickly developed to improve HIV prevention and access to care in the workplace.

Social factors affecting ART adherence in rural settings in Zambia.

The purpose of this study was to assess the factors that influence ART adherence arising in rural settings in Zambia. A survey was conducted with face-to-face interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire and written informed consent was obtained at ART sites in Mumbwa District in rural Zambia. The questionnaire included items such as the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, support for adherence, ways to remember when to take ARVs at scheduled times, and the current status of adherence. Valid responses were obtained from 518 research participants. The mean age of the respondents was 38.3 years and the average treatment period was 12.5 months. More than half of the respondents (51%) were farmers, about half (49%) did not own a watch, and 10% of them used the position of the sun to remember when to take ARVs. Sixteen percent of respondents experienced fear of stigma resulting from taking ARVs at work or home, and 10% felt pressured to share ARVs with someone. Eighty-eight percent of the participants reported that they had never missed ARVs in the past four days. Multivariable logistic regression analysis identified age (38 years old or less, odds ratio (OR) = 2.5, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3-4.8, p=0.005), "remembering when to take ARVs based on the position of the sun" (OR = 3.3, 95% CI: 1.3-8.8, p=0.016), and "feeling pressured to share ARVs with someone" (OR = 4.4, 95% CI: 1.6-12.0, p=0.004) as independent factors for low adherence. As ART services expand to rural areas, program implementers should pay more attention to more specific factors arising in rural settings since they may differ from those in urban settings.

Paediatric HIV and elimination of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in the ASEAN region: a call to action.

Recent achievements in scaling up paediatric antiretroviral therapy (ART) have changed the life of children living with HIV, who now stay healthy and live longer lives. However, as it becomes more of a chronic infection, a range of new problems have begun to arise. These include the disclosure of HIV serostatus to children, adherence to ART, long-term toxicities of antiretroviral drugs and their sexual and reproductive health, which are posing significant challenges to the existing health systems caring for children with HIV with limited resources, experiences and capacities. While intensified efforts and actions to improve care and treatment for these children are needed, it is crucial to accelerate the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV, which is the main cause of paediatric HIV in the ASEAN region so as to eliminate the fundamental cause of the problem. This report argues that given over 70% of women have access to at least one antenatal care visit in the region and acceptance of HIV testing after receiving counselling on PMTCT could be as high as 90%, there is an opportunity to strengthen PMTCT services and eventually eliminate new paediatric HIV infections in the ASEAN countries.

An evaluation of a refresher training intervention for HIV lay counsellors in Chongwe District, Zambia.

To address a severe shortage of human resources for health, the Zambian Ministry of Health has begun to make use of lay counsellors for HIV counselling and testing. However, their skills and knowledge rarely have been reviewed or refreshed. We conducted a two-day refresher workshop for lay counsellors to review their performance and refresh their skills and knowledge. The objective of this study was to evaluate the refresher training intervention for HIV lay counsellors in the rural district of Chongwe in Zambia. The two-day refreshertraining workshop was held in November 2009. Twenty-five lay counsellors were selected by District Health Office and participated in the workshop. The workshop included: the opening, a pre-training exercise, lectures on quality assurance with regard to testing and safety precautions, lectures on counselling, filling the gap/Q&A session, and a post-training exercise. In both the pre- and post-training exercise, participants answered 25 true/false questions and tested 10 blood panel samples to demonstrate their knowledge and skill on HIV counselling and testing. The average overall knowledge test score increased from 79% to 95% (p<0.001). At the baseline, knowledge test scores in topic of standard precaution and post-exposure prophylaxis were relatively low (58%) but rose to 95% after the training (p<0.001). The per cent agreement of HIV testing by lay counsellors with reference laboratory was 99.2%. Participants' knowledge was improved during the workshop and skill at HIV testing was found to remain at a high level of accuracy. Relatively weak knowledge of standard precautions and post-exposure prophylaxis suggests that lay counsellors are at risk of nosocomial infections, particularly in the absence of refresher training interventions. We conclude that the refresher training was effective for improving the knowledge and skills of lay counsellors and provided an opportunity to monitor their performance.

Predictors of exclusive breast-feeding in early infancy: a survey report from Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: Exclusive breast-feeding (EBF) is recommended in the first 6 months of an infant's life. This study aims to investigate the present status of infant feeding practices and identify factors that affect EBF practices during the first 6 months following infant birth in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey with a semistructured questionnaire was given to 312 mothers with children aged 6 to 24 months who visited the immunization clinic in the National Maternal and Child Health Centre in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, from December 2005 to February 2006. RESULTS: Eighty-three percent of mothers fed breast milk exclusively in the first month, whereas only 51.3% continued EBF in the first 6 months. Within 30 minutes after delivery, 39% of mothers began breast-feeding. Results from logistic regression analysis indicate that the lack of a maternal antenatal EBF plan (odds ratio [OR] = 10.01, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.68-27.24, p < .001), working mothers (OR = 4.71, 95% CI = 2.77-8.01, p < .001), and lack of paternal attendance at breast-feeding classes (OR = 1.93, 95% CI = 1.13-3.28, p < .05) have independently positive associations with cessation of EBF during the first 6 months of infant life. CONCLUSION: The findings have helped to identify some important factors affecting EBF practices in the study area in Cambodia. The findings revealed that it is important to educate pregnant mothers, probably through exposure to trained midwives and media, so they may recognize the significance of EBF and will develop intention and plan to feed their babies, keeping in mind the benefits it may yield. Paternal involvement in breast-feeding classes may increase their awareness and consequently complement EBF practices. Finally, development of conducive working environments and policies for working mothers should be carefully explored because it could have positive influence in better care and promotion of EBF.

Expansion of antiretroviral treatment to rural health centre level by a mobile service in Mumbwa district, Zambia.

PROBLEM: Despite the Government's effort to expand services to district level, it is still hard for people living with HIV to access antiretroviral treatment (ART) in rural Zambia. Strong demands for expanding ART services at the rural health centre level face challenges of resource shortages. APPROACH: The Mumbwa district health management team introduced mobile ART services using human resources and technical support from district hospitals, and community involvement at four rural health centres in the first quarter of 2007. This paper discusses the uptake of the mobile ART services in rural Mumbwa. LOCAL SETTING: Mumbwa is a rural district with an area of 23 000 km² and a population of 167 000. Before the introduction of mobile services, ART services were provided only at Mumbwa District Hospital. RELEVANT CHANGES: The mobile services improved accessibility to ART, especially for clients in better functional status, i.e. still able to work. In addition, these mobile services may reduce the number of cases "lost to follow-up". This might be due to the closer involvement of the community and the better support offered by these services to rural clients. LESSONS LEARNT: These mobile ART services helped expand services to rural health facilities where resources are limited, bringing them as close as possible to where clients live.

Prevalence and barriers to HIV testing among mothers at a tertiary care hospital in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Barriers to HIV testing in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

BACKGROUND: One-third of all new HIV infections in Cambodia are estimated to be due to mother-to-child transmission. Although the Ministry of Health adopted a policy of provider-initiated HIV testing and counseling (PITC), nearly a quarter of pregnant mothers were not tested in 2007. Greater acceptance of HIV testing is a challenge despite Cambodia's adoption of the PITC policy. METHODS: A hospital-based quantitative and cross-sectional survey was conducted to assess the prevalence of and barriers to HIV testing among mothers after delivery at the National Maternal and Child Health Center in Phnom Penh. The Center is one of the largest maternal and child care hospitals in the country to offer PITC services. All 600 eligible mothers who were admitted to the hospital after delivery from October to December 2007 were approached and recruited. Data were collected via a semi-structured questionnaire. RESULTS: The prevalence of HIV testing among women who delivered at the hospital was 76%. In multivariate logistic regression, factors such as the perceived need to obtain a partner's permission to be tested (OR=0.27, 95% CI=0.14-0.51, p<0.01), the lack of knowledge about HIV prevention and treatment (OR=0.38, CI=0.22-0.66, p<0.01), and the lack of access to ANC services (OR=0.35, 95% CI=0.21-0.58, p<0.01) were found to be the main barriers to HIV testing. CONCLUSION: To achieve greater acceptance of HIV testing, counseling on HIV prevention and treatment must be provided not only to mothers but also to their partners. In addition, utilization of non-laboratory staff such as midwives to provide HIV testing services in rural health facilities could lead to the greater acceptance of HIV testing.

Involvement of 101F6, a homologue of cytochrome b561, in the reduction of ferric ions.

We have isolated and characterized a small transmembrane protein, called 101F6, showing high sequence homology to cytochrome b(561), a protein containing two binding sites for haem. The newly identified 101F6 contains six membrane spanning domains in which conserved histidine residues are located, and has a molecular mass of 25 kDa. When the haem-binding with bacterial expressed 101F6 was examined, the protein bound haem and the deletion of one histidine residue at 149 caused a loss of the binding. 101F6 mRNA was expressed widely in various tissues, and especially abundant in liver, kidney and lung. It was also expressed in several cultured cell lines. The protein expressed from the 101F6 cDNA in Balb/3T3 cells was about 25 kDa in size and was localized in small vesicles, including endosomes and endoplasmic reticulum of the perinuclear region. Comparison of the location of 101F6 with that of transferrin receptor-1 revealed that the localization of 101F6 in small vesicles was not always the same as the localization of transferrin receptor-1, but was similar to that of haem oxygenase-1. The other homologue to cytochrome b(561), SDR-2 was also expressed in the small vesicles similar to the location of 101F6. Finally, reduction of ferric ions as well as of azo-dye increased with 101F6- or SDR-2-expressing cells. Thus, both 101F6 and SDR-2 were localized in small vesicles of cells and played roles in the reduction of ferric ions.

Predicting factors for the experience of HIV testing among women who have given birth in Cambodia.

HIV testing and counselling is an entry point for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) services, and it is important to determine predictors for HIV testing to improve the acceptance of HIV testing. The aim of this study was to assess predictive determinants for HIV testing asking mothers who had already given birth. Mothers who came to a childhood immunization in Phnom Penh, Cambodia with a child (children) aged 6-24 months were randomly selected in January and February 2006. A cross-sectional survey with a semi-structured questionnaire including a question about the experience of HIV testing was conducted to the mothers at the clinic by trained interviewers. Of the 315 respondents, 193 mothers (61.3%) had ever been tested for HIV and 265 mothers (84.1%) showed the necessary of permission by partners before HIV testing. In a multivariate logistic regression analysis, basic knowledge about HIV transmission [adjusted odd's ratio (aOR): 2.875, 95% CI: 1.668-4.956] as the best predictor, the number of children (aOR: 2.186, 95% CI: 1.241-3.852) and partner's education level (aOR: 1.950, 95% CI: 1.044-3.641) remained statistically significant, however the necessity of permission by partners did not (aOR: 1.691, 95% CI: = 0.859-3.328). Since some mothers ever tested might have obtained the permission with the perception of their partners before tested, it should be still highlighted that involvement of partners is an important strategy. Education on HIV transmission to young women and men through communication and health education strategies involving partners seems to lead PMTCT services to be more acceptable.

Evaluation of the proficiency of trained non-laboratory health staffs and laboratory technicians using a rapid and simple HIV antibody test.

In Cambodia, nearly half of pregnant women attend antenatal care (ANC), which is an entry point of services for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT). However, most of ANC services are provided in health centres or fields, where laboratory services by technicians are not available. In this study, those voluntary confidential counselling and testing (VCCT) counsellors involved in PMTCT were trained by experienced laboratory technicians in our centre on HIV testing using Determine (Abbot Laboratories) HIV1/2 test kits through a half-day training course, which consisted of use of a pipette, how to process whole blood samples, and how to read test result. The trained counsellors were midwives working for ANC and delivery ward in our centre without any experience on laboratory works. The objective of this study was to assess the feasibility of the training by evaluating the proficiency of the trained non-laboratory staffs. The trained counsellors withdrew blood sample after pre-test counselling following ANC, and performed the rapid test. Laboratory technicians routinely did the same test and returned reports of the test results to counsellors. Reports by the counsellors and the laboratory technicians were compared, and discordant reports in two groups were re-tested with the same rapid test kit using the same blood sample. Cause of discordance was detected in discussion with both groups. Of 563 blood samples tested by six trained VCCT counsellors and three laboratory technicians, 11 samples (2.0%) were reported positive in each group, however four discordant reports (0.7%) between the groups were observed, in which two positive reports and two negative reports by the counsellors were negative and positive by the laboratory technicians, respectively. Further investigation confirmed that all the reports by the counsellors were correct, and that human error in writing reports in the laboratory was a cause of these discordant reports. These findings lead us the conclusion that the half-day training using the rapid and simple test was feasible for non-laboratory staffs to attain enough proficiency to implement VCCT services for PMTCT in resource-limited settings, and that human error was more likely to occur in laboratory before giving reports to counsellors.