Accelerating the development of genetically engineered cellular therapies: a framework for extrapolating data across related products.

BACKGROUND: Significant advancements have been made in the field of cellular therapy as anti-cancer treatments, with the approval of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapies and the development of other genetically engineered cellular therapies. CAR-T cell therapies have demonstrated remarkable clinical outcomes in various hematological malignancies, establishing their potential to change the current cancer treatment paradigm. Due to the increasing importance of genetically engineered cellular therapies in the oncology treatment landscape, implementing strategies to expedite development and evidence generation for the next generation of cellular therapy products can have a positive impact on patients. METHODS: We outline a risk-based methodology and assessment aid for the data extrapolation approach across related genetically engineered cellular therapy products. This systematic data extrapolation approach has applicability beyond CAR-T cells and can influence clinical development strategies for a variety of immune therapies such as T cell receptor (TCR) or genetically engineered and other cell-based therapies (e.g., tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, natural killer cells and macrophages). RESULTS: By analyzing commonalities in manufacturing processes, clinical trial designs, and regulatory considerations, key learnings were identified. These insights support optimization of the development and regulatory approval of novel cellular therapies. CONCLUSIONS: The field of cellular therapy holds immense promise in safely and effectively treating cancer. The ability to extrapolate data across related products presents opportunities to streamline the development process and accelerate the delivery of novel therapies to patients.

Treatment with a VEGFR-2 antibody results in intra-tumor immune modulation and enhances anti-tumor efficacy of PD-L1 blockade in syngeneic murine tumor models.

Prolonged activation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) due to mis-regulation of the VEGF pathway induces aberrant blood vessel expansion, which supports growth and survival of solid tumors. Therapeutic interventions that inhibit the VEGFR-2 pathway have therefore become a mainstay of cancer treatment. Non-clinical studies have recently revealed that blockade of angiogenesis can modulate the tumor microenvironment and enhance the efficacy of concurrent immune therapies. Ramucirumab is an FDA-approved anti-angiogenic antibody that inhibits VEGFR-2 and is currently being evaluated in clinical studies in combination with anti-programmed cell death (PD-1) axis checkpoint inhibitors (pembrolizumab, durvalumab, or sintilimab) across several cancer types. The purpose of this study is to establish a mechanistic basis for the enhanced activity observed in the combined blockade of VEGFR-2 and PD-1-axis pathways. Pre-clinical studies were conducted in murine tumor models known to be responsive to anti-PD-1 axis therapy, using monoclonal antibodies that block mouse VEGFR-2 and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1). Combination therapy resulted in enhanced anti-tumor activity compared to anti-PD-L1 monotherapy. VEGFR-2 blockade at early timepoints post-anti-PD-L1 therapy resulted in a dose-dependent and transient enhanced infiltration of T cells, and establishment of immunological memory. VEGFR-2 blockade at later timepoints resulted in enhancement of anti-PD-L1-driven immune cell infiltration. VEGFR-2 and PD-L1 monotherapies induced both unique and overlapping patterns of immune gene expression, and combination therapy resulted in an enhanced immune activation signature. Collectively, these results provide new and actionable insights into the mechanisms by which concurrent VEGFR-2 and PD-L1 antibody therapy leads to enhanced anti-tumor efficacy.

Bispecific Targeting of PD-1 and PD-L1 Enhances T-cell Activation and Antitumor Immunity.

The programmed cell death protein 1 receptor (PD-1) and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) coinhibitory pathway suppresses T-cell-mediated immunity. We hypothesized that cotargeting of PD-1 and PD-L1 with a bispecific antibody molecule could provide an alternative therapeutic approach, with enhanced antitumor activity, compared with monospecific PD-1 and PD-L1 antibodies. Here, we describe LY3434172, a bispecific IgG1 mAb with ablated Fc immune effector function that targets both human PD-1 and PD-L1. LY3434172 fully inhibited the major inhibitory receptor-ligand interactions in the PD-1 pathway. LY3434172 enhanced functional activation of T cells in vitro compared with the parent anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 antibody combination or respective monotherapies. In mouse tumor models reconstituted with human immune cells, LY3434172 therapy induced dramatic and potent antitumor activity compared with each parent antibody or their combination. Collectively, these results demonstrated the enhanced immunomodulatory (immune blockade) properties of LY3434172, which improved antitumor immune response in preclinical studies, thus supporting its evaluation as a novel bispecific cancer immunotherapy.

Characterization of 7A5: A Human CD137 (4-1BB) Receptor Binding Monoclonal Antibody with Differential Agonist Properties That Promotes Antitumor Immunity.

The CD137 receptor plays a key role in mediating immune response by promoting T cell proliferation, survival, and memory. Effective agonism of CD137 has the potential to reinvigorate potent antitumor immunity either alone or in combination with other immune-checkpoint therapies. In this study, we describe the discovery and characterization of a unique CD137 agonist, 7A5, a fully human IgG1 Fc effector-null monoclonal antibody. The biological properties of 7A5 were investigated through in vitro and in vivo studies. 7A5 binds CD137, and the binding epitope overlaps with the CD137L binding site based on structure. 7A5 engages CD137 receptor and activates NF-κB cell signaling independent of cross-linking or Fc effector function. In addition, T cell activation measured by cytokine IFNγ production is induced by 7A5 in peripheral blood mononuclear cell costimulation assay. Human tumor xenograft mouse models reconstituted with human immune cells were used to determine antitumor activity in vivo. Monotherapy with 7A5 inhibits tumor growth, and this activity is enhanced in combination with a PD-L1 antagonist antibody. Furthermore, the intratumoral immune gene expression signature in response to 7A5 is highly suggestive of enhanced T cell infiltration and activation. Taken together, these results demonstrate 7A5 is a differentiated CD137 agonist antibody with biological properties that warrant its further development as a cancer immunotherapy. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://mct.aacrjournals.org/content/molcanther/19/4/988/F1.large.jpg.

Accelerating the development of innovative cellular therapy products for the treatment of cancer.

The field of cell therapy is rapidly emerging as a priority area for oncology research and drug development. Currently, two chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapies are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and other agencies worldwide for two types of hematologic cancers. To facilitate the development of these therapies for patients with life-threatening cancers with limited or no therapeutic options, science- and risk-based approaches will be critical to mitigating and balancing any potential risk associated with either early clinical research or more flexible manufacturing paradigms. Friends of Cancer Research and the Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy convened an expert group of stakeholders to develop specific strategies and proposals for regulatory opportunities to accelerate the development of cell therapies as promising new therapeutics. This meeting took place in Washington, DC on May 17, 2019. As academia and industry expand research efforts and cellular product development pipelines, this report summarizes opportunities to accelerate entry into the clinic for exploratory studies and optimization of cell products through manufacturing improvements for these promising new therapies.

The Folate Pathway Inhibitor Pemetrexed Pleiotropically Enhances Effects of Cancer Immunotherapy.

PURPOSE: Combination strategies leveraging chemotherapeutic agents and immunotherapy have held the promise as a method to improve benefit for patients with cancer. However, most chemotherapies have detrimental effects on immune homeostasis and differ in their ability to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD). The approval of pemetrexed and carboplatin with anti-PD-1 (pembrolizumab) for treatment of non-small cell lung cancer represents the first approved chemotherapy and immunotherapy combination. Although the clinical data suggest a positive interaction between pemetrexed-based chemotherapy and immunotherapy, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Mouse tumor models (MC38, Colon26) and high-content biomarker studies (flow cytometry, Quantigene Plex, and nCounter gene expression analysis) were deployed to obtain insights into the mechanistic rationale behind the efficacy observed with pemetrexed/anti-PD-L1 combination. ICD in tumor cell lines was assessed by calreticulin and HMGB-1 immunoassays, and metabolic function of primary T cells was evaluated by Seahorse analysis. RESULTS: Pemetrexed treatment alone increased T-cell activation in mouse tumors in vivo, robustly induced ICD in mouse tumor cells and exerted T-cell-intrinsic effects exemplified by augmented mitochondrial function and enhanced T-cell activation in vitro. Increased antitumor efficacy and pronounced inflamed/immune activation were observed when pemetrexed was combined with anti-PD-L1. CONCLUSIONS: Pemetrexed augments systemic intratumor immune responses through tumor intrinsic mechanisms including immunogenic cell death, T-cell-intrinsic mechanisms enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis leading to increased T-cell infiltration/activation along with modulation of innate immune pathways, which are significantly enhanced in combination with PD-1 pathway blockade.See related commentary by Buque et al., p. 6890.

Disruption of TET2 promotes the therapeutic efficacy of CD19-targeted T cells.

Cancer immunotherapy based on genetically redirecting T cells has been used successfully to treat B cell malignancies1-3. In this strategy, the T cell genome is modified by integration of viral vectors or transposons encoding chimaeric antigen receptors (CARs) that direct tumour cell killing. However, this approach is often limited by the extent of expansion and persistence of CAR T cells4,5. Here we report mechanistic insights from studies of a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia treated with CAR T cells targeting the CD19 protein. Following infusion of CAR T cells, anti-tumour activity was evident in the peripheral blood, lymph nodes and bone marrow; this activity was accompanied by complete remission. Unexpectedly, at the peak of the response, 94% of CAR T cells originated from a single clone in which lentiviral vector-mediated insertion of the CAR transgene disrupted the methylcytosine dioxygenase TET2 gene. Further analysis revealed a hypomorphic mutation in this patient's second TET2 allele. TET2-disrupted CAR T cells exhibited an epigenetic profile consistent with altered T cell differentiation and, at the peak of expansion, displayed a central memory phenotype. Experimental knockdown of TET2 recapitulated the potency-enhancing effect of TET2 dysfunction in this patient's CAR T cells. These findings suggest that the progeny of a single CAR T cell induced leukaemia remission and that TET2 modification may be useful for improving immunotherapies.

Targeting the TGFß pathway with galunisertib, a TGFßRI small molecule inhibitor, promotes anti-tumor immunity leading to durable, complete responses, as monotherapy and in combination with checkpoint blockade.

BACKGROUND: TGFß signaling plays a pleotropic role in tumor biology, promoting tumor proliferation, invasion and metastasis, and escape from immune surveillance. Inhibiting TGFß's immune suppressive effects has become of particular interest as a way to increase the benefit of cancer immunotherapy. Here we utilized preclinical models to explore the impact of the clinical stage TGFß pathway inhibitor, galunisertib, on anti-tumor immunity at clinically relevant doses. RESULTS: In vitro treatment with galunisertib reversed TGFß and regulatory T cell mediated suppression of human T cell proliferation. In vivo treatment of mice with established 4T1-LP tumors resulted in strong dose-dependent anti-tumor activity with close to 100% inhibition of tumor growth and complete regressions upon cessation of treatment in 50% of animals. This effect was CD8+ T cell dependent, and led to increased T cell numbers in treated tumors. Mice with durable regressions rejected tumor rechallenge, demonstrating the establishment of immunological memory. Consequently, mice that rejected immunogenic 4T1-LP tumors were able to resist rechallenge with poorly immunogenic 4 T1 parental cells, suggesting the development of a secondary immune response via antigen spreading as a consequence of effective tumor targeting. Combination of galunisertib with PD-L1 blockade resulted in improved tumor growth inhibition and complete regressions in colon carcinoma models, demonstrating the potential synergy when cotargeting TGFß and PD-1/PD-L1 pathways. Combination therapy was associated with enhanced anti-tumor immune related gene expression profile that was accelerated compared to anti-PD-L1 monotherapy. CONCLUSIONS: Together these data highlight the ability of galunisertib to modulate T cell immunity and the therapeutic potential of combining galunisertib with current PD-1/L1 immunotherapy.

Correction to: Discovery and preclinical characterization of the antagonist anti-PD-L1 monoclonal antibody LY3300054.

Unfortunately, after publication of this article [1], it was noticed that corrections to the legends of Figs. 1 and 2 were not correctly incorporated. The correct legends can be seen below.

Discovery and preclinical characterization of the antagonist anti-PD-L1 monoclonal antibody LY3300054.

BACKGROUND: Modulation of the PD-1/PD-L1 axis through antagonist antibodies that block either receptor or ligand has been shown to reinvigorate the function of tumor-specific T cells and unleash potent anti-tumor immunity, leading to durable objective responses in a subset of patients across multiple tumor types. RESULTS: Here we describe the discovery and preclinical characterization of LY3300054, a fully human IgG1λ monoclonal antibody that binds to human PD-L1 with high affinity and inhibits interactions of PD-L1 with its two cognate receptors PD-1 and CD80. The functional activity of LY3300054 on primary human T cells is evaluated using a series of in vitro T cell functional assays and in vivo models using human-immune reconstituted mice. LY3300054 is shown to induce primary T cell activation in vitro, increase T cell activation in combination with anti-CTLA4 antibody, and to potently enhance anti-tumor alloreactivity in several xenograft mouse tumor models with reconstituted human immune cells. High-content molecular analysis of tumor and peripheral tissues from animals treated with LY3300054 reveals distinct adaptive immune activation signatures, and also previously not described modulation of innate immune pathways. CONCLUSIONS: LY3300054 is currently being evaluated in phase I clinical trials for oncology indications.

The CDK4/6 Inhibitor Abemaciclib Induces a T Cell Inflamed Tumor Microenvironment and Enhances the Efficacy of PD-L1 Checkpoint Blockade.

Abemaciclib, an inhibitor of cyclin dependent kinases 4 and 6 (CDK4/6), has recently been approved for the treatment of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. In this study, we use murine syngeneic tumor models and in vitro assays to investigate the impact of abemaciclib on T cells, the tumor immune microenvironment and the ability to combine with anti-PD-L1 blockade. Abemaciclib monotherapy resulted in tumor growth delay that was associated with an increased T cell inflammatory signature in tumors. Combination with anti-PD-L1 therapy led to complete tumor regressions and immunological memory, accompanied by enhanced antigen presentation, a T cell inflamed phenotype, and enhanced cell cycle control. In vitro, treatment with abemaciclib resulted in increased activation of human T cells and upregulated expression of antigen presentation genes in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. These data collectively support the clinical investigation of the combination of abemaciclib with agents such as anti-PD-L1 that modulate T cell anti-tumor immunity.

Preclinical assessment of galunisertib (LY2157299 monohydrate), a first-in-class transforming growth factor-ß receptor type I inhibitor.

Transforming growth factor-ß (TGFß) is an important driver of tumor growth via intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms, and is therefore an attractive target for developing cancer therapeutics. Using preclinical models, we characterized the anti-tumor activity of a small molecule inhibitor of TGFß receptor I (TGFßRI), galunisertib (LY2157299 monohydrate). Galunisertib demonstrated potent and selective inhibition of TGFßRI with corresponding inhibition of downstream signaling via inhibition of SMAD phosphorylation (pSMAD). Galunisertib also inhibited TGFß-induced pSMAD in vivo, which enabled a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profile in Calu6 and EMT6-LM2 tumors. Galunisertib demonstrated anti-tumor activity including inhibition of tumor cell migration and mesenchymal phenotype, reversal of TGFß-mediated immune-suppression, and tumor growth delay. A concentration-effect relationship was established with a dosing schedule to achieve the optimal level of target modulation. Finally, a rat model demonstrated a correlation between galunisertib-dependent inhibition of pSMAD in tumor tissues and in PBMCs, supporting the use of PBMCs for assessing pharmacodynamic effects. Galunisertib has been tested in several clinical studies with evidence of anti-tumor activity observed in subsets of patients. Here, we demonstrate that galunisertib inhibits a number of TGFß-dependent functions leading to anti-tumor activity. The enhanced understanding of galunisertib provides rationale for further informed clinical development of TGFß pathway inhibitors.

CART Targeting of Solid Tumors: More Pieces to the Puzzle.

Chimeric antigen receptor-modified T (CART)-cell-based targeting of solid tumors remains a considerable and worthwhile challenge in the field of immunotherapy. The role of chemotherapy to target stroma and enhance chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) cell antitumor function, expansion, and persistence is still unresolved. Clin Cancer Res; 24(6); 1246-7. ©2018 AACRSee related article by Guo et al., p. 1277.

High-content molecular profiling of T-cell therapy in oncology.

Recent clinical data have revealed the remarkable potential for T-cell-modulating agents to induce potent and durable responses in a subset of cancer patients. In this review, we discuss molecular approaches, platforms, and strategies that enable a broader interrogation of the activity of agents that modulate the activity of tumor-specific T cells, to more comprehensively understand how and why the agents succeed and fail, as well as examples of data sets generated in clinical trials that have provided important insights into the biological activity of T-cell therapies and that support further rational development of this exciting treatment modality.

Dual CD19 and CD123 targeting prevents antigen-loss relapses after CD19-directed immunotherapies.

Potent CD19-directed immunotherapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CART) and blinatumomab, have drastically changed the outcome of patients with relapsed/refractory B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). However, CD19-negative relapses have emerged as a major problem that is observed in approximately 30% of treated patients. Developing approaches to preventing and treating antigen-loss escapes would therefore represent a vertical advance in the field. Here, we found that in primary patient samples, the IL-3 receptor α chain CD123 was highly expressed on leukemia-initiating cells and CD19-negative blasts in bulk B-ALL at baseline and at relapse after CART19 administration. Using intravital imaging in an antigen-loss CD19-negative relapse xenograft model, we determined that CART123, but not CART19, recognized leukemic blasts, established protracted synapses, and eradicated CD19-negative leukemia, leading to prolonged survival. Furthermore, combining CART19 and CART123 prevented antigen-loss relapses in xenograft models. Finally, we devised a dual CAR-expressing construct that combined CD19- and CD123-mediated T cell activation and demonstrated that it provides superior in vivo activity against B-ALL compared with single-expressing CART or pooled combination CART. In conclusion, these findings indicate that targeting CD19 and CD123 on leukemic blasts represents an effective strategy for treating and preventing antigen-loss relapses occurring after CD19-directed therapies.

De-Risking Immunotherapy: Report of a Consensus Workshop of the Cancer Immunotherapy Consortium of the Cancer Research Institute.

With the recent FDA approvals of pembrolizumab and nivolumab, and a host of additional immunomodulatory agents entering clinical development each year, the field of cancer immunotherapy is changing rapidly. Strategies that can assist researchers in choosing the most promising drugs and drug combinations to move forward through clinical development are badly needed in order to reduce the likelihood of late-stage clinical trial failures. On October 5, 2014, the Cancer Immunotherapy Consortium of the Cancer Research Institute, a collaborative think tank composed of stakeholders from academia, industry, regulatory agencies, and patient interest groups, met to discuss strategies for de-risking immunotherapy development, with a focus on integrating preclinical and clinical studies, and conducting smarter early-phase trials, particularly for combination therapies. Several recommendations were made, including making better use of clinical data to inform preclinical research, obtaining adequate tissues for biomarker studies, and choosing appropriate clinical trial endpoints to identify promising drug candidates and combinations in nonrandomized early-phase trials.

T cells targeting NY-ESO-1 demonstrate efficacy against disseminated neuroblastoma.

The cancer-testis antigen NY-ESO-1 is expressed by many solid tumors and has limited expression by mature somatic tissues, making it a highly attractive target for tumor immunotherapy. Targeting NY-ESO-1 using engineered T cells has demonstrated clinical efficacy in the treatment of some adult tumors. Neuroblastoma is a significant cause of cancer mortality in children, and is a tumor type shown to be responsive to immunotherapies. We evaluated a large panel of primarily resected neuroblastoma samples and demonstrated that 23% express NY-ESO-1. After confirming antigen-specific activity of T cells genetically engineered to express an NY-ESO-1 directed high-affinity transgenic T cell receptor in vitro, we performed xenograft mouse studies assessing the efficacy of NY-ESO-1-targeted T cells in both localized and disseminated models of neuroblastoma. Disease responses were monitored by tumor volume measurement and in vivo bioluminescence. After delivery of NY-ESO-1 transgenic TCR T cells, we observed significant delay of tumor progression in mice bearing localized and disseminated neuroblastoma, as well as enhanced animal survival. These data demonstrate that NY-ESO-1 is an antigen target in neuroblastoma and that targeted T cells represent a potential therapeutic option for patients with neuroblastoma.

Immunodynamics: a cancer immunotherapy trials network review of immune monitoring in immuno-oncology clinical trials.

The efficacy of PD-1/PD-L1 targeted therapies in addition to anti-CTLA-4 solidifies immunotherapy as a modality to add to the anticancer arsenal. Despite raising the bar of clinical efficacy, immunologically targeted agents raise new challenges to conventional drug development paradigms by highlighting the limited relevance of assessing standard pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD). Specifically, systemic and intratumoral immune effects have not consistently correlated with standard relationships between systemic dose, toxicity, and efficacy for cytotoxic therapies. Hence, PK and PD paradigms remain inadequate to guide the selection of doses and schedules, both starting and recommended Phase 2 for immunotherapies. The promise of harnessing the immune response against cancer must also be considered in light of unique and potentially serious toxicities. Refining immune endpoints to better inform clinical trial design represents a high priority challenge. The Cancer Immunotherapy Trials Network investigators review the immunodynamic effects of specific classes of immunotherapeutic agents to focus immune assessment modalities and sites, both systemic and importantly intratumoral, which are critical to the success of the rapidly growing field of immuno-oncology.

Chimeric antigen receptor-engineered T cells in CLL: the next chapter unfolds.

The long-standing promise for the application of engineered T lymphocytes to target and eradicate malignancy has begun to be realized recently, with remarkable clinical success reported by a number of groups using Chimeric Antigen Receptor -engineered T cells to target CD19-positive hematologic malignancies. In the September 2 issue of Science Translational Medicine, Porter et al. present the clinical data and correlative analyses for 14 CLL patients treated at the University of Pennsylvania under the pilot clinical trial recently completed at that institution. The initial reports from this trial, published in 2011 documented robust clinical activity in a small cohort of treated patients accompanied by logarithmic expansion, contraction, and long-term functional persistence of engineered T cells, along with cytokine release syndrome as a side-effect of the treatment. In this latest report, updated data are presented from the initial cohort of patients, as well as clinical and correlative data from the remainder of the treated cohort. The robust clinical activity observed in the initial cohort continued to be observed in a subset of the subsequently-treated patients, with molecular remissions documented in that subset; however, in the expanded cohort a subset of partial and non-responding patients was also identified. Collectively, the results from this exciting trial provide evidence to suggest that cellular immunotherapy using engineered T cells is a viable option for treating CLL, reveal a likely requirement for robust in-vivo activation and persistence of engineered cells to effect complete responses, and also highlight the need for a more complete mechanistic understanding of the immune- and tumor- specific processes that define and dictate the success of this powerful treatment modality.

The Addition of the BTK Inhibitor Ibrutinib to Anti-CD19 Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cells (CART19) Improves Responses against Mantle Cell Lymphoma.

PURPOSE: Responses to therapy with chimeric antigen receptor T cells recognizing CD19 (CART19, CTL019) may vary by histology. Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) represents a B-cell malignancy that remains incurable despite novel therapies such as the BTK inhibitor ibrutinib, and where data from CTL019 therapy are scant. Using MCL as a model, we sought to build upon the outcomes from CTL019 and from ibrutinib therapy by combining these in a rational manner. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: MCL cell lines and primary MCL samples were combined with autologous or normal donor-derived anti-CD19 CAR T cells along with ibrutinib. The effect of the combination was studied in vitro and in mouse xenograft models. RESULTS: MCL cells strongly activated multiple CTL019 effector functions, and MCL killing by CTL019 was further enhanced in the presence of ibrutinib. In a xenograft MCL model, we showed superior disease control in the CTL019- as compared with ibrutinib-treated mice (median survival not reached vs. 95 days, P < 0.005) but most mice receiving CTL019 monotherapy eventually relapsed. Therefore, we added ibrutinib to CTL019 and showed that 80% to 100% of mice in the CTL019 + ibrutinib arm and 0% to 20% of mice in the CTL019 arm, respectively, remained in long-term remission (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Combining CTL019 with ibrutinib represents a rational way to incorporate two of the most recent therapies in MCL. Our findings pave the way to a two-pronged therapeutic strategy in patients with MCL and other types of B-cell lymphoma. Clin Cancer Res; 22(11); 2684-96. ©2016 AACR.