Coping Patterns During the COVID-19 Pandemic by Sexual and Gender Identity.

National polls have shown that COVID-19 has been highly stressful, negatively affecting well-being and life satisfaction overall, but few studies have focused on individuals with sexual and gender diverse identities. Pandemic-related stress may increase engagement in adverse or negative health-related coping behaviors and decrease engagement in positive coping strategies, potentially exacerbating existing LGBTQ+ health disparities. Relying on a nationally representative population-based sample, we examine disparities in rates of negative and positive COVID-19 coping behaviors by sexual and gender identities. Using Poisson regression models adjusted for key sociodemographic and pandemic related factors, we found higher rates of negative and positive coping behaviors among certain sexual and gender diverse groups compared to their heterosexual and cisgender counterparts. Specifically, we find that lesbian and gay respondents reported more positive and negative coping strategies compared to heterosexual persons. We also found higher rates of negative coping behaviors among plurisexual (bisexual, pansexual, omnisexual) and noncisgender adults (transgender or other nonbinary gender identity) compared to heterosexual and cisgender adults, respectively. We contribute to prior studies by focusing on both negative and positive pandemic related coping among sexually and gender diverse populations. These responses to the pandemic may have long-term implications for the health and well-being of sexual and gender diverse individuals.

Emotional support among partnered sexual minority and heterosexual individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Emotional support, particularly support from family and friends, is essential to health outcomes especially for marginalized communities. Although emotional support is recognized as a critical resource, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, to date no research has examined access to support during the pandemic for sexual diverse populations. This study aims to apply minority stress theory by drawing on a new population-based data source of 3,642 respondents, the National Couples' Health and Time Study (NCHAT), which oversampled sexual and gender diverse populations during the pandemic. We focus on two sources of emotional support: family members and friends. Exclusively heterosexual respondents relied more on emotional support from family than respondents who identified as exclusively gay/lesbian, bisexual including pan, omni, and queer, and those reporting another sexual identity or multiple sexual identities. However, respondents who did not identify as heterosexual relied more on emotional support from friends compared to exclusively heterosexual respondents. There were no significant differences among respondents with sexual minority identities in regard to family or friend support. Other factors, such as outness to friends and family, identity centrality, aggressions, and relationship satisfaction are found to be associated support from friends and family. The findings presented here add to a growing body of work on social support while adding sexual minority-specific factors that may affect receipt of, need for, and outcomes relating to support. This work contributes to understanding of the social climate and resources available to sexual diverse populations during a major public health crisis.

COVID-19 Stress and Sexual Identities.

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has disrupted lives and resulted in high levels of stress. Although the evidence at the societal level is clear, there have been no population-based studies of pandemic-based stress focusing on individuals who identify as sexual minorities. Drawing on representative data collected during the pandemic, National Couples' Health and Time Study, the authors find that partnered (cohabiting or married) individuals who identified as sexual minorities experienced higher levels of stress than individuals who identified as heterosexual. However, variation exists observed among sexual minority adults. Although economic resources, discrimination, social and community support, and health conditions are tied to reported stress levels, they do not explain differentials according to sexual identity. These results provide evidence that sexual minority adults faced greater stress during the pandemic and the importance of recognizing that sexual minorities are not a monolithic group with varying stress responses to the pandemic.

Stress and Mental Health: A Focus on COVID-19 and Racial Trauma Stress.

In the United States, COVID-19 unfolded alongside profound racial trauma. Drawing on a population representative sample of 20-60 year-olds who were married or cohabiting, the National Couples' Health and Time Study (N =3,642), we examine two specific sources of stress: COVID-19 and racial trauma. We leverage the fully powered samples of respondents with racial/ethnic and sexual minority identities and find that COVID-19 and racial trauma stress were higher among individuals who were not White or heterosexual most likely due to racism, xenophobia, and cis-heterosexism at the individual and structural levels. Both COVID-19 and racial trauma stress were associated with poorer mental health outcomes even after accounting for a rich set of potential mechanistic indicators, including discrimination and social climate. We argue that the inclusion of assessments of stress are critical for understanding health and well-being among individuals impacted by systemic and interpersonal discrimination.

A biopsychosocial framework for understanding sexual and gender minority health: A call for action.

The number of US adults identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or a different sexual identity has doubled since 2008, and about 40 % of the sexual and gender minority population identify as people of color. Minority stress theory posits that sexual and gender minorities are at particular risk for stress via stigma and discrimination at the structural, interpersonal, and individual levels. This stress, in turn, elevates the risk of adverse health outcomes across several domains. However, there remains a conspicuously limited amount of research on the psychoneuroimmunology of stress among sexual and gender minorities. We developed the Biopsychosocial Minority Stress Framework which posits that sexual minority status leads to unique experiences of minority stress which results in adverse health behavioral factors, elevated psychological distress and sleep disturbance, and immune dysregulation. Moderators in the model include both individual differences and intersectional identities. There is a crucial need to understand the biological-psychological axis of stress among the increasingly visible sexual and gender minority population to increase their health, longevity, and quality of life.

Fathers' Parenting and Coparenting Behavior in Dual-Earner Families: Contributions of Traditional Masculinity, Father Nurturing Role Beliefs, and Maternal Gate Closing.

We investigated whether dual-earner fathers' adherence to traditional masculine norms, father nurturing role beliefs, and maternal gate closing behavior predicted the quality of new fathers' observed parenting and coparenting behavior. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of the transition to parenthood among 182 dual-earner different-sex couples. Expectant fathers reported their masculine agency, hostile sexism, gendered provider beliefs, and father nurturing role beliefs in the third trimester of pregnancy. Maternal gate closing behavior was coded from observations of mother-father-infant interaction at 3 months postpartum. At 9 months postpartum the quality of fathers' parenting behavior was coded from observations of father-infant interaction, and the quality of fathers' coparenting behavior was coded from observations of mother-father-infant interaction. SEM analyses indicated that fathers who held stronger father nurturing role beliefs showed more positive parenting behavior and less undermining coparenting behavior. Fathers higher in masculine agency also showed more positive parenting behavior. Mothers' greater gate closing behavior was linked to less positive parenting and less supportive coparenting behavior by fathers. More positive couple behavior observed prenatally was also associated with better parenting and coparenting by fathers. These results highlight the complexity of relations of traditional masculinity, father role beliefs, and maternal gate closing with the quality of new fathers' behaviors with children and partners in dual-earner families.

Paternal stimulation and father-infant attachment.

This study examined the longitudinal associations between fathers' observed parenting behaviors and father-infant attachment (n = 58 father-infant dyads). Fathers were observed playing with their infants at 9 months postpartum and were assessed for stimulating behaviors (i.e. physical and/or object stimulation), as well as their sensitivity and intrusiveness. When the infants were 12 to 18 months of age, fathers and infants participated together in the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) to assess father-infant attachment security. Logistic regression analyses revealed that higher levels of paternal stimulation at 9 months postpartum were associated with greater odds of classification as a secure father-infant dyad. Additionally, fathers' observed intrusiveness at 9 months postpartum moderated this association; greater paternal stimulation was associated with significantly greater odds of father-infant attachment security at low and average levels of paternal intrusiveness, but not at high levels of paternal intrusiveness. This study provides new insight into the paternal behaviors that may foster secure father-infant attachment.

New Fathers' Perceptions of Dyadic Adjustment: The Roles of Maternal Gatekeeping and Coparenting Closeness.

Although the association between maternal gatekeeping and relationship functioning has been explored by a few studies, none of these have focused on fathers' perceptions of these constructs. Given that today's new fathers are challenged by elevated expectations for active parenting and coparenting even as most new mothers remain primary caregivers of infant children, this is a critical omission. This study examined the associations between new fathers' perceptions of maternal gatekeeping and change in dyadic adjustment as mediated through coparenting closeness. Maternal gatekeeping was reported by 182 fathers at 3 months postpartum, coparenting closeness was reported at 3 and 6 months postpartum, and dyadic adjustment was reported during the third trimester of pregnancy and at 9 months postpartum. Fathers' perceptions of relative change in coparenting closeness from 3 to 6 months mediated associations between fathers' perceptions of maternal gatekeeping at 3 months and relative change in dyadic adjustment from the third trimester to 9 months postpartum. In particular, findings indicate that greater perceived maternal gate opening was associated with higher levels of dyadic adjustment through higher levels of coparenting closeness, whereas greater perceived maternal gate closing was associated with lower levels of dyadic adjustment through lower levels of coparenting closeness. This study highlights the importance of studying fathers in the context of the family system and the role of the coparenting relationship at the transition to parenthood in couple relationship functioning.

Aunque la asociación entre el control materno y el funcionamiento de la relación ha sido analizado por algunos estudios, ninguno de estos se ha centrado en las percepciones de los padres de estos constructos. Teniendo en cuenta que los padres recientes de hoy se enfrentan al desafío de expectativas elevadas de crianza y cocrianza activas, incluso cuando la mayoría de las madres recientes siguen siendo las cuidadoras principales de los bebés, esta es una omisión crucial. Este estudio examinó las asociaciones entre las percepciones de los padres recientes con respecto al control materno y el cambio en el ajuste diádico a través de la proximidad en la cocrianza. Ciento ochenta y dos padres informaron el control materno tres meses después del parto, la proximidad en la cocrianza se informó a los tres y a los seis meses después del parto y el ajuste diádico se informó durante el tercer trimestre de embarazo y a los nueve meses después del parto. Las percepciones de los padres del cambio relativo en la proximidad de la cocrianza desde los tres a los seis meses mediaron las asociaciones entre las percepciones de los padres del control materno a los tres meses y del cambio relativo en el ajuste diádico desde el tercer trimestre hasta los nueve meses después del parto. En particular, los resultados indican que una mayor percepción de soltura del control de la madre estuvo asociado con niveles más altos de ajuste diádico mediante niveles más altos de proximidad en la cocrianza, mientras que una mayor percepción de rigurosidad del control de la madre estuvo asociado con niveles más bajos de ajuste diádico mediante niveles más bajos de proximidad en la cocrianza. Este estudio destaca la importancia de estudiar a los padres en el contexto del sistema familiar y el papel que desempeña la relación de cocrianza durante la transición a la paternidad en el funcionamiento de la relación de pareja.

The intergenerational transmission of partnering.

As divorce and cohabitation dissolution in the US have increased, partnering has expanded to the point that sociologists describe a merry-go-round of partners in American families. Could one driver of the increase in the number of partners be an intergenerational transmission of partnering? We discuss three theoretical perspectives on potential mechanisms that would underlie an intergenerational transmission of partnering: the transmission of economic hardship, the transmission of marriageable characteristics and relationship skills, and the transmission of relationship commitment. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Child and Young Adult study (NLSY79 CYA) and their mothers in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79), we examined the intergenerational transmission of partnering, including both marital and cohabitating unions, using prospective measures of family and economic instability as well as exploiting sibling data to try to identify potential mechanisms. Even after controlling for maternal demographic characteristics and socioeconomic factors, the number of maternal partners was positively associated with offspring's number of partners. Hybrid sibling Poisson regression models that examined sibling differential experiences of maternal partners indicated that there were no differences between siblings who witnessed more or fewer maternal partners. Overall, results suggested that the transmission of poor marriageable characteristics and relationship skills from mother to child may warrant additional attention as a potential mechanism through which the number of partners continues across generations.

What Are Men Doing While Women Perform Extra Unpaid Labor? Leisure and Specialization at the Transition to Parenthood.

Marriage has significantly changed since Becker proposed his specialization model yet some scholars maintain that specialization characterizes modern couples. Specialization occurs when one partner, traditionally the man, concentrates on market work while the other partner, traditionally the woman, focuses on nonmarket work such as housework or childcare. Using innovative time diary data from primarily highly-educated, White, dual-earner U.S. couples, we examine how couples manage their time in market and household work and leisure across a momentous, gendered life course turning point-the transition to parenthood. We find little evidence of specialization, but stronger evidence of nonspecialization where both partners concurrently engaged in market work or leisure. Yet gender still mattered. Men enjoyed more leisure time, particularly on nonworkdays, whereas their partners performed more nonmarket work. Our study is the first known to uncover exactly what men were doing while women performed additional minutes of housework and childcare. On nonworkdays, fathers engaged in leisure 47% and 35% of the time during which mothers performed childcare and routine housework, respectively. Mothers engaged in leisure only about 16% to 19% of the time that fathers performed childcare and routine housework. In sum, although our study challenges economic theories of specialization by showing that nonspecialization is the norm for new parents' time among highly-educated, dual-earner couples, persistent gender inequalities continue to characterize family work and leisure time.

Coparenting in the family of origin and new parents' couple relationship functioning.

To better understand the long-term implications of coparenting quality for adult child outcomes, we examined the associations between coparenting quality in the family of origin (Generation 1; G1), and attachment avoidance and anxiety and perceived relationship functioning of new parents (Generation 2; G2) using a dyadic approach. Dual-earner families expecting their first child (n = 182) were followed across the transition to parenthood and assessed at the third trimester of pregnancy (3T) and 9 months after childbirth (9M). At 3T, parents reported on the coparenting quality in their families of origin, and attachment avoidance and anxiety. At 9M, the participants reported their perceptions of couple relationship functioning-dyadic adjustment and negative interaction. We found that at 9M, G1's coparenting quality predicted not only G2's own perceptions but also G2's partners' perceptions of relationship functioning. Further, mediational analyses showed that parents' G1 coparenting quality was associated with higher G2 self- and partner-perceived dyadic adjustment and lower G2 self-perceived negative interaction through G2 parents' lower attachment anxiety and avoidance. G1 coparenting quality was negatively associated with G2 partner-perceived negative interaction through G2 parents' lower attachment anxiety. Our findings suggest that coparenting relationships have long-term implications for human development even into adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record

A Cohort Comparison of Predictors of Young Adult Union Formation and Dissolution in the US.

The theory of the second demographic transition argues that as educated Americans began valuing self-actualization and individual autonomy, delays in union formation spread through the US. The accelerated adulthood theory suggests that socioeconomic disadvantage distinguishes young adulthood such that those with fewer resources have shorter, more informal (i.e. cohabitation) unions, and those with more resources delay but achieve marriage and have greater union stability. We use two large, nationally representative samples of young adults collected about twenty years apart, the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth 1979 and 1997 cohorts to examine cohort differences in union formation and dissolution and test interaction effects in demographic and socioeconomic correlates. We found that the NLSY97 cohort 1) entered into unions earlier than the NLSY79 cohort, 2) entered direct marriage (marriage without premarital cohabitation) later than the NLSY79 cohort, and 3) entered cohabiting unions earlier than the NLSY79 cohort. A greater proportion of young adults in the NLSY97 cohort dissolved their first union between ages 16 and 30. We found that socioeconomically disadvantaged young adults had earlier unions by some indicators (e.g. lower maternal education) and later unions by other indicators (e.g. unemployment) in both cohorts. We also found that in both cohorts, socioeconomic disadvantage undermined union stability. We also found evidence for interaction effects; some indicators of socioeconomic disadvantage (e.g. income, employment, and maternal education) had exacerbated effects on union formation and stability in the NLSY97 as compared to the NLSY79 cohorts perhaps because inequality grew over the twenty years between cohorts.

Maternal Coparenting Attitudes and Toddler Adjustment: Moderated Mediation through Father's Positive Engagement.

OBJECTIVE: To better understand the antecedents of fathers' positive engagement and child externalizing behaviors, we examined the roles of maternal coparenting attitudes and fathers' prenatal intuitive parenting behaviors in predicting fathers' positive engagement and toddler externalizing behaviors. DESIGN: One hundred and eighty-two dual-earner families residing in Columbus, Ohio were recruited when parents were expecting their first child. They were followed across the transition to parenthood and assessed at the third trimester (Time 1), 3 months postpartum (Time 2), 9 months postpartum (Time 3), and when the child reached approximately 27 months of age (Time 4). Mothers reported their perceptions of their partners' parenting competence (i.e., coparenting attitudes) and their children's externalizing behaviors at Times 2 and 4, respectively. Fathers reported their own positive engagement at Times 2 and 3. Fathers' intuitive parenting behaviors were observed at Time 1. RESULTS: After controlling for fathers' positive engagement at Time 2, maternal endorsement of fathers' parenting competence positively predicted fathers' positive engagement at Time 3, especially for fathers who displayed average or high levels of prenatal intuitive parenting behaviors. For families with fathers who displayed average or above-average intuitive parenting behaviors, maternal endorsement of fathers' parenting competence was negatively associated with children's externalizing behaviors through its positive association with fathers' positive engagement. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal coparenting attitudes in conjunction with fathers' prenatal intuitive parenting predicted toddler externalizing behaviors through their association with fathers' positive engagement.

Doing Gender Online: New Mothers' Psychological Characteristics, Facebook Use, and Depressive Symptoms.

Online social networking sites, such as Facebook, have provided a new platform for individuals to produce and reproduce gender through social interactions. New mothers, in particular, may use Facebook to practice behaviors that align with their mothering identity and meet broader societal expectations, or in other words, to "do motherhood." Given that Facebook use may undermine well-being, it is important to understand the individual differences underlying new mothers' experiences with Facebook during the stressful first months of parenthood. Using survey data from a sample of 127 new mothers with Facebook accounts residing in the U.S. Midwest, we addressed two key questions: (a) Are individual differences in new mothers' psychological characteristics associated with their use and experiences of Facebook? and (b) Are new mothers' psychological characteristics associated with greater risk for depressive symptoms via their use and experiences of Facebook? Regression analyses revealed that mothers who were more concerned with external validation of their identities as mothers and those who believed that society holds them to excessively high standards for parenting engaged in more frequent Facebook activity and also reported stronger emotional reactions to Facebook commentary. Moreover, mothers who were more concerned with external validation were more likely to have featured their child in their Facebook profile picture. Mediation analyses indicated that mothers who were more prone to seeking external validation for their mothering identity and perfectionistic about parenting experienced increases in depressive symptoms indirectly via greater Facebook activity.

Like mother, like child: Offspring marital timing desires and maternal marriage timing and stability.

Understanding the determinants of marital timing is critical because it has implications for marital functioning and divorce. One salient predictor of marital timing is youth's desires for marriage timing. To shine light on predictors of both desires for marital timing and the timing of marriage itself, we examine offspring marital desires and maternal marriage characteristics in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979 (NLSY79) cohort and 1979 Child and Young Adult cohort (NLSY79-CYA; biological offspring of the women in the 1979 cohort). Analyses showed that maternal cohabitation postdivorce predicted decreased expectations to ever marry in offspring. Maternal age at marriage was positively associated with offspring desires for age at marriage, but only for those whose mothers had not divorced. Maternal marital age was significantly associated with the offspring's transition into marriage even when controlling for the offspring's desires for marriage timing, but neither maternal marriage age nor offspring desires for marital timing were associated with the timing of entrance into cohabitation, whereas maternal divorce was associated with earlier cohabitation. Our findings suggest that maternal marriage characteristics, particularly divorce, are significant predictors of millennials' desires for and experiences with romantic relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record

New Parents' Psychological Adjustment and Trajectories of Early Parental Involvement.

Trajectories of parental involvement time (engagement and child care) across 3, 6, and 9 months postpartum and associations with parents' own and their partners' psychological adjustment (dysphoria, anxiety, and empathic personal distress) were examined using a sample of dual-earner couples experiencing first-time parenthood (N = 182 couples). Using time diary measures that captured intensive parenting moments, hierarchical linear modeling analyses revealed that patterns of associations between psychological adjustment and parental involvement time depended on the parenting domain, aspect of psychological adjustment, and parent gender. Psychological adjustment difficulties tended to bias the 2-parent system toward a gendered pattern of "mother step in" and "father step out," as father involvement tended to decrease, and mother involvement either remained unchanged or increased, in response to their own and their partners' psychological adjustment difficulties. In contrast, few significant effects were found in models using parental involvement to predict psychological adjustment.

Supportive Coparenting Relationships as a Haven of Psychological Safety at the Transition to Parenthood.

Guided by research on psychological safety, we used longitudinal survey data from a sample of 182 dual-earner male-female couples to examine the role of supportive coparenting in mediating relations between adult attachment orientations and parenting stress/satisfaction, and further considered whether parenting self-efficacy moderated relations between supportive coparenting and parenting stress/satisfaction. Path analyses using IBM SPSS AMOS 22 and bootstrapping techniques indicated that fathers' (but not mothers') perceptions of supportive coparenting at 3 months postpartum mediated the associations between their attachment anxiety in the third trimester of pregnancy and their parenting stress and satisfaction at 9 months postpartum. Additional tests of moderation revealed that mothers' perceptions of greater supportive coparenting were associated with lower parenting stress only when their parenting self-efficacy was low, but fathers' perceptions of greater supportive coparenting were associated with greater parenting satisfaction only when their parenting self-efficacy was high. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Who are the Gatekeepers? Predictors of Maternal Gatekeeping.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to identify determinants of maternal gatekeeping at the transition to parenthood. DESIGN: Participants included 182 different-gender dual-earner couples. During pregnancy, expectant parents completed questionnaires regarding their psychological functioning, attitudes, and expectations, and at 3 months postpartum questionnaires regarding maternal gatekeeping behavior and gate closing attitudes. RESULTS: SEM analyses revealed that mothers were more likely to close the gate to fathers when mothers held greater perfectionistic expectations for fathers' parenting, had poorer psychological functioning, perceived their romantic relationship as less stable, and had higher levels of parenting self-efficacy. In contrast, fathers with lower parenting self-efficacy appeared to elicit greater maternal gate closing behavior. Mothers who engaged in greater gate opening behavior were more religious. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal gatekeeping may be more strongly associated with maternal expectations and psychological functioning than with maternal traditional gender attitudes. Fathers' characteristics are less predictive of maternal gatekeeping than mothers' characteristics.

Infant characteristics and parental engagement at the transition to parenthood.

Positive engagement activities support children's adaptive development and new parents are encouraged to be highly engaged with infants. Yet, fathers' engagement is widely understudied and maternal engagement quantity is frequently overlooked. Our study contributes to growing knowledge on associations between infant temperament and parental engagement by testing transactional and moderation models in a recent sample of first-time parents when infants were 3, 6, and 9 months old. Stringent longitudinal, reciprocal structural equation models partially confirmed an engagement "benefit". Mothers' engagement marginally contributed to their children's gains in effortful control from 3 to 6 months regardless of child gender. Further, mothers' engagement reduced infant negative affect from 6 to 9 months regardless of child gender. Mothers' ratings of infant negative affect were gendered; mothers' ratings of infant negative affect increases more from 3 to 6 months for boys. Fathers' engagement was contextually sensitive; child gender moderated the link between negative affect and engagement from 6 to 9 months, such that fathers became more engaged with boys whom they rated higher on negative affect; there was no effect for daughters. Finally, we found that effortful control moderated associations between negative affect and maternal engagement; mothers' engagement increases from 3 to 6 months were greater for children initially rated lower in effortful control. Implications for future research and parenting education and support services are discussed.

Commitment across the Transition to Parenthood among Married and Cohabiting Couples.

Commitment has long been hypothesized to increase across the transition to parenthood, even though much research has found that relationship functioning declines during this period. We examined change in interpersonal commitment, measured as personal dedication and relationship confidence, and constraint commitment, measured as felt constraint, across the transition to parenthood. We tested for marital status differences in the change in commitment across the transition among three groups: cohabitation, marriage preceded by cohabitation, and direct marriage. Data came from the New Parents Project, a community sample of 173 married and cohabiting couples. Difference-in-difference estimates indicated that cohabiting fathers, in comparison to married fathers, dropped further in personal dedication and relationship confidence and increased more in felt constraint across the transition to parenthood. No significant differences across the transition were found between cohabiting and married mothers. Further research on the transition to parenthood among unmarried couples is suggested.