[The question of organogenetic development of the musculus tibialis anterior (MTA) in man]. / Zur Frage der organogenetischen Entwicklung des Musculus tibialis anterior (MTA) des Menschen.

The present organogenetic study of the tibialis anterior muscle on 65 lower limbs of human embryos and fetuses shows that the primitive form of the muscle develops from only one primordium. Therefore, the abductor hallucis longus muscle has been present neither in man nor in his ancestors.

[Upright posture of the human and the morphologic evolution of the musculi extensores digitorum pedis with reference to evolutionary myology]. / Die Aufrichtung des Menschen und die morphologische Evolution der Musculi extensores digitorum pedis unter dem Gesichtspunkt der evolutiven Myologie. Teil I.

A brief literature review is made of the morphological changes in the bones of the lower limbs of man, which are the result of his upright walk. The author's task has been to study the morphological changes of Mm. extensores digitorum pedis from the viewpoint of evolutionary myology. The following material has been studied: Lower limbs of adults, 151 less than or equal to N less than or equal to 358. Pelvic limbs of Marsupialia, Insectivora, and non-hominide primates; N = 122. Lower limbs of human embryos and fetuses; N = 71. The following acknowledgements are the author's own studies. They begin with an evolutionary-myological study of m. extensor hallucis longus and of m. extensor digitorum longus, together with m. peroneus tertius.

[Upright posture of the human and morphologic evolution of the musculi extensores digitorum pedis in view of evolutionary myology. II]. / Die Aufrichtung des Menschen und die morphologische Evolution der Musculi extensores digitorum pedis unter dem Gesichtspunkt der evolutiven Myologie. Teil II.

Following a description of the organogenetic development of m. extensor digitorum longus and of m. peroneus tertius, a general discussion is presented of the results obtained from the study of the three groups of material. Next comes an evolutionary-myological study of m. peroneus brevis and of musculi peronei digitorum, together with the respective conclusions.

[Upright posture of man and morphologic evolution of the musculi extensores digitorum pedis with reference to evolutionary myology. III]. / Die Aufrichtung des Menschen und die morphologische Evolution der Musculi extensores digitorum pedis unter dem Gesichtspunkt der evolutiven Myologie. Teil III.

The following anatomical objects were studied with regard to myology during evolution: M. extensor hallucis longus (MEHL), M. extensor digitorum longus (MEDL) with M. peroneus tertius (MP III), M. peroneus brevis (MPB) with M. peroneus digiti V (MPD V), M. extensor hallucis brevis (MEHB), M. extensor digitorum brevis (MEDB), and the Retinaculum musculorum extensorum imum (RMEI). The study was carried out by the preparation of 3 different groups of material. The 1st group consists of lower extremities of humans. The number of the extremities differs for the particular objects between 151 and 358 (see page 381). The 2nd group of material consists of 122 Membra pelvina from Marsupialia, Insectivora, and Primates. Table 1 shows as well the mammalian species as the number of the studied extremities. The extremities of the 1st and 2nd group were preserved in an manner suitable for a macroscopic preparation. The 3rd group of material consists of 71 lower extremities from embryos and fetus. The lower legs and feet were stained either according to the method described by Morel and Bassal with eosin added or according to Weigert. From this material, complete series of cross sections were prepared. Table 2 shows the age of the embryos (VCL [mm]) as well as the number of the studied extremities. It is important that up to the age of 46 mm VCL the difference in the age of the embryos usually amounts from 0.5 to 1.0 mm. This small difference in the age of the embryos and fetus allows a very good follow up of the changes in construction during the organogenesis. The comparison of the 3 different groups shows the following changes for the above mentioned muscles: The M. extensor hallucis longus (MEHL) is a muscle which is not split. The same result applies for its tendon which inserts at the distal phalanx of the hallux. This primitive form of the muscle amounts actually to 51.12% in human beings. In 48.88% of the cases, additional tendons and muscles are formed by the MEHL. Most of these supplements are positioned on the medial side of the main tendon, only a few lie to the lateral side. For the supplement tendons, the medial one as well as the lateral one occasionally possess a muscle belly. The muscle of the medial tendon is split off from the proximal margin of the MEHL. The muscle of the lateral tendon is split off from the distal margin of the MEHL.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

[Existence of a retinaculum musculorum extensorum immum in man]. / Uber die Existenz eines Retinaculum musculorum extensorum imum beim Menschen.

The considerable variability of the Mm. extensor hallucis longus et brevis and the medial portion of the M. extensor digitorum brevis reflects the higher strain acting on the medial part of the forefoot. These functional conditions result probably not only in the increased development of the muscles mentioned above but also in the formation of a Retinaculum musculorum extensorum imum, which does, in fact, occur in 64.2% of extremities examined. 2 major forms of this retinaculum can be differentiated: A Retinaculum musculorum extensorum imum fibrosum (52.3%) and musculofibrosum (11.9%). The fibrous form again occurs in 2 varieties, namely a complete (47%) and an incomplete (5.3%) one.

[The organogenetic development of the human extensor hallucis longus muscle]. / Uber die organogenetische Entwicklung des M. extensor hallucis longus beim Menschen.

The organogenetic investigations on the human crural and foot musculature give only a general idea for the development of the m. extensor hallucis longus (Schomburg 1900; Bardeen 1907), but it is not possible to understand the sequence of the changes of the primordium of this muscle during its morphogenesis. To the best of our knowledge, so far no interpretation of these changes is known, although it is of great significance to the evolutionary myology. Therefore, it seemed reasonable to us to carry out an investigation on the organogenesis of the m. extensor hallucis longus from the evolutionary myology point of view, using the results of previous detailed comparative-anatomical study of the same muscle. The basis of such an investigation was well-grounded a few years ago (Kaneff 1977).

[Comparative-anatomical investigation of the M. extensor hallucis longus in man]. / Vergleichend-anatomische Untersuchung des M. extensor halucis longus beim Menschen.

The authors have analysed the variations of the M. extensor hallucis longus in man from the standpoint of evolutionary myology. The variations of the muscle indicate that in modern man it has transformed itself in the medially as well as in the laterally direction. Consequently it forms 2 new muscles: M. extensor hallucis longus accessorius medialis and M. extensor hallucis longus accessorius lateralis. The reorganization in the medial direction is phylogenetically older than that in the lateral direction. Of all primates these 2 muscles appear only in man representing a new acquisition. The new additional muscles and their transitional forms can be found independently and also together in various combinations. The additional tendons and muscles widen the insertion of the M. extensor hallucis longus medially and laterally. The authors emphasize that the reorganization in the medial direction is independent from that in the lateral direction.

[Organogensis of the human extensor digitorum longus and the peroneus tertius evaluated from the viewpoint of evolutionary myology]. / L'organogenèse du M. extensor digitorum longus et du M. peroneus tertius chez l'homme evalué du point de vue de la myologie evolutive.

Our present knowledge on the organogenetic development of the upper muscles is rather general and incomplete and that concerning m. peroneus tertius even contradictory. The author has studied in advance the variability of the above mentioned muscles in 277 human inferior limbs and in 62 pelvic limbs of 19 species of non-human Primates. In this way he has received precise indications for an organogenetic study of m. extensor digitorum longus and of m. peroneus tertius, which gives a possibility for the stages of this development to be determined. These stages are studied in the present work of complete series of cross sections of the corresponding parts of inferior limbs of 34 human embryos and fetuses from 12 to 67,5 mm C. R. L. coloured for an histological investigation.

[Morphologic evolution of the human extensor digitorum and the abductor pollicis longus muscles. II. Morphologic evolution of the human extensor digiti minimi, the abductor pollicis longus, the extensor pollicis brevis and the extensor pollicis longus muscles]. / Evolution morphologique des Musculi extensores digitorum et abductor pollicis longus chez l'Homme.

The author has studied the macroscopic morphology of the above mentioned muscles over 3 groups of material: 1. 200 superior limbs of adults and 100 superior limbs of human foetuses from 4,8 cm to 37 cm C.H.L. 2. 100 thoracic limbs from 25 species of non-hominid Primates, 13 thoracic limbs from 6 species of Marsupials and 9 thoracic limbs from 2 species of Insectivores. 3. The organogenesis of the muscles in question is studied over the complete series of transversal cuts of 18 superior limbs of human embryos and foetuses from 13,5 mm to 60 mm C.H.L. Comparison and discussion of the facts is made according to the principles of the evolutionary myology.

[Morphologic evolution of the musculi extensores digitorum and abductor pollicis longus in man. Part I: Introduction, methodology, M. extensor digitorum]. / Evolution morphologique des musculi extensores digitorum et abductor pollicis longus chez l'Homme Ire Partie: Introduction, méthodologie, M. extensor digitorum.

The author discusses first of all the theoretical principles of the evolutionary myology and gives a detailed explanation on the 3 types of studies included in this complex method. The investigated material is distributed into 3 groups, which correspond to the above mentioned 3 types of studies: 1. The variations of the muscles, object of research, are studied on 200 upper limbs of adults and cn 100 limbs of human fetuses. The crown to heel length of the latter and the number of the studied limbs could be seen on the Table on page 823. 2. The comparative-anatomic research is performed on 122 limbs of animals. The different species of animals as well as the number of the examined limbs are given on the table on page 824. 3. The organogenetic material includes 18 upper limbs of human embryos and fetuses, the age of which could be seen on the table on page 825. After expressing his gratitute to all, who have assisted him in his work the author gives the already known literature data related to the phylogenesis and ontogenesis of the muscles studied by him. His own investigations start with searching of m. extensor digitorum in man, as special attention is paid both to the muscles' bellies and their tendons and the connexus intertendinei.

[The organogenic development of the human peroneal muscle of the IVth digit from the peroneal muscle of the Vth digit and the short peroneal muscle from the viewpoint of evolutive myology]. / Le développement organogénique du m. peroneus digiti IV, du m. peroneus digiti V et du m. peroneus brevis chez l'homme, dupoint de vue de la myologie évolutive.

The preliminary author's investigations revealed, that the mm. peronei digitorum group in Mammalia (including Man) underwent its own morphological evolution. The author failed to establish the facts that indicated the homology between the above mentioned muscles and m. extensor digitorum brevis. But, at present due to the lack of detailed determinations of organogenesis of mm. peronei digitorum and of m. peroneus brevis, it was not possible to prove the above mentioned indications. The observations on organogenesis of the respective muscles, carried out at present upon 13 human embryos with 12 to 32 mm crown-rump length and 5 fetuses with 35 to 65 mm crown-rump length, revealed that, mm. peronei digitorum primordium initiated its development as a muscle of two fingers (m. peroneus digiti IV. et m. peroneus digiti V), passed through its one-finger form (m. peroneus digiti V) and usually terminated with its complete reduction.

[Organogenetic development of muscles in the deep extensor layer of the front limb in the golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus)]. / Oranganogenetische Entwicklung der Muskeln der tiefen Extensorenschicht des Vorderarmes beim Goldhamster (Mesocricetus auratus).

The author has investigated a complete series of cross-sections of thoracic extremities of the embryos and foetuses of Mesocricetus auratus of different age. He describes the successive stages of manifestation and differentiation of the deep-layer primordia of the extensor muscles of the fingers. He treats the facts also of an evolutionary myology point of view.

[The existence of M. peroneus digiti IV and of M. peroneus digiti V in the distant predecessors of man]. / Sur l'existence du M. peroneus digiti IV et du M. peroneus digiti V chez les prédécesseurs lointains de l'homme.

Recent evolutionary myological researches on the m. peroneus digiti IV and m. peroneus digiti V in Man have shown that these muscles had been at first an inseparable component of his peroneal musculature. The above mentioned muscles have undergone practically a full reduction in the course of man's phylogenesis. The peroneal muscular group of the pelvic limb of the Mesocricetus auratus consists now of m. peroneus longus, m. peroneus brevis and both m. peroneus digiti IV et m. peroneus digiti V. In other words, the situation is the same as in the Prosimia. The comparasion of the organogenesis of the muscles in question in Man and in the golden hamster shows that the morphology and topography of their primordia on the proximal parts of the metatarsus in the Man's embryo of 14 mm CRL are the same as in the embryo of Mesocricetus auratus of 11 d and 18 h. The development of this common primordium is different after that age of the embryos of both mammalian species. It reduces and usually completely disappears in Man, while in Mesocricetus auratus it gives rise of the tendons of the m. peroneus digiti IV and the m. peroneus digiti V. Thus the present research proves that the primordium in the proximal parts of the metatarsus of Man's embryo with 14 mm CRL is a tendo-forming plate of the tendons of the m. peroneus digiti IV and m. peroneus digiti V.

[Evolutionary myology as a research method in the morphological evolution of human muscles]. / La myologie évolutive comme méthode de recherche de l'évolution morphologique des muscles.

The author presents the evolutionary myology as a complex research method by which the morphological transformation of human muscles could be proved. This process of muscle transformation is elucidated by 3 investigation types: 1. Morphological macroscopic investigation of the variations of certain human muscle. 2. Comparative anatomic investigation of the same muscle. 3. Muscle organogenetic study of human embryos and fetuses. The macroscopic morphological investigation of the variations of any human muscle enables the examination of the variability in its complete versatility and volume if a sufficient number of preparations are investigated. A line of successive muscle variations could be composed from the established variants, arranged one after another. Furthermore, the frequency of each variation could be determined in per cents. The material for comparative-anatomic investigation must be selected according to the contemporary zoology. The variation line of human material can be properly directed due to that examination. Now it is possible to understand which is the initial form, the transitional forms and the final form of the transformation process. Thus the direction of transformation process could be understand. The muscle organogenetic investigation must be carried out on human embryos and fetuses of different ages. In this way muscle and tendion primordium could be observed directly and in the same time the important factors about the primordium maturity and its eventual shifting could be established. The example described refers to the transformation of m. abductor pollicis longus. It reveals how the evolutionary myology can be used to prove the morphological evolution of any muscle.